Restingomyces, a new sequestrate genus from the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest that is phylogenetically related to early-diverging taxa in Trappeaceae (Phallales).

Restingomyces reticulatus gen. et sp. nov. is a recently discovered false truffle species from Atlantic "restinga" rainforest in northeastern Brazil. Molecular and morphological characters separate this new sequestrate species from other described taxa in the order Phallales (Phallomycetidae, Basidiomycota). In our phylogenetic analysis based on nuc 28S rDNA and atp6, R. reticulatus forms a sister clade to Trappea darkeri and Phallobata alba, with the three taxa forming the earliest diverging lineage within Phallales. Morphological and molecular data warrant the recognition of the new genus and species, described here, and we also amend the taxonomic description for the family Trappeaceae.

Molecular and morphological analyses confirm Rhizopogon verii as a widely distributed ectomycorrhizal false truffle in Europe, and its presence in South America.

The genus Rhizopogon includes species with hypogeous or subepigeus habit, forming ectomycorrhizae with naturally occurring or planted pines (Pinaceae). Species of the genus Rhizopogon can be distinguished easily from the other hypogeous basidiomycetes by their lacunose gleba without columella and their smooth elliptical spores; however, the limit between species is not always easy to establish. Rhizopogon luteolus, the type species of the genus, has been considered one of the species that are more abundant in Europe, as well as it has been cited in pine plantation of North and South America, different parts of Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. However, in this study, based on molecular analyses of the ITS nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) sequences (19 new sequences; 37 sequences from GenBank/UNITE, including those from type specimens), we prove that many GenBank sequences under R. luteolus were misidentified and correspond to Rhizopogon verii, a species described from Tunisia. Also, we confirm that basidiomes and ectomycorrhizae recently collected in Germany under Pinus sylvestris, as well as specimens from South of Brazil under Pinus taeda belong to R. verii. Thanks to the numerous ectomycorrhizal tips collected in Germany, a complete description of R. verii/P. sylvestris ectomycorrhiza is provided. Moreover, since in this paper the presence of R. verii in South America is here reported for the first time, a short description of basidiomes collected in Brazil, compared with collections located in different European herbaria, is included.

Longistriata flava (Boletaceae, Basidiomycota) - a new monotypic sequestrate genus and species from Brazilian Atlantic Forest.

A new monotypic sequestrate genus, Longistriata is described based on collections from the Neotropical forest of Atlantic forest in Paraíba, Northeast Brazil - an area known for its high degree of endemism. The striking features of this new fungus are the hypogeous habit, the vivid yellow peridium in mature basidiomes, broadly ellipsoid basidiospores with a distinct wall that is ornamented with longitudinal striations and lageniform cystidia with rounded apices. Phylogenetic analysis, based on LSU and tef-1α regions, showed that the type species, Longistriata flava, is phylogenetically sister to the monotypic sequestrate African genus Mackintoshia in Boletaceae. Together these two species formed the earliest diverging lineage in the subfamily Zangioideae. Longistriata flava is found in nutrient-poor white sand habitats where plants in the genera Coccoloba (Polygonaceae) and Guapira (Nyctaginaceae) are the only potential ectomycorrhizal host symbionts.

Diversity trapped in cages: Revision of Blumenavia Möller (Clathraceae, Basidiomycota) reveals three hidden species.

Basidiomata of Phallales have a diversified morphology with adhesive gleba that exudes an odor, usually unpleasant that attracts mainly insects, which disperse the basidiospores. The genus Blumenavia belongs to the family Clathraceae and, based on morphological features, only two species are currently recognized: B. rhacodes and B. angolensis. However, the morphological characters adopted in species delimitations within this genus are inconsistent, and molecular data are scarce. The present study aimed to review and identify informative characters that contribute to the delimitation of Blumenavia species. Exsiccates from America and Africa were analyzed morphologically, and molecularly, using ITS, LSU, ATP6, RPB2 and TEF-1α markers for Maximum Parsimony, Bayesian and Maximum likelihood analyses, and also for coalescent based species delimitations (BP&P), as well as for bPTP, PhyloMap, Topo-phylogenetic and Geophylogenetic reconstructions. According to our studies, seven species can be considered in the genus: B. rhacodes and B. angolensis are maintained, B. usambarensis and B. toribiotalpaensis are reassessed, and three new species are proposed, B. baturitensis Melanda, M.P. Martín & Baseia, sp. nov., B. crucis-hellenicae G. Coelho, Sulzbacher, Grebenc & Cortez, sp. nov., and B. heroica Melanda, Baseia & M.P. Martín, sp. nov. Blumenavia rhacodes is typified by selecting a lectotype and an epitype. Macromorphological characters considered informative to segregate and delimit the species through integrative taxonomy include length of the basidiomata, color, width and presence of grooves on each arm as well as the glebifer position and shape. These must be clearly observed while the basidiomata are still fresh. Since most materials are usually analyzed after dehydration and deposit in collections, field techniques and protocols to describe fugacious characters from fresh specimen are demanded, as well as the use of molecular analysis, in order to better assess recognition and delimitation of species in Blumenavia.

Behind the veil - exploring the diversity in Phallus indusiatus s.l. (Phallomycetidae, Basidiomycota).

Studies have demonstrated that many cosmopolitan species actually consist of divergent clades that present high levels of morphological stasis throughout their evolutionary histories. Phallus indusiatus s.l. has been described as a circum-tropical species. However, this distribution may actually reflect the lack of taxonomic resolution due to the small number of diagnostic morphological characters, which leads to the identification of new records as populations of P. indusiatus. Here, we examine the diversity of P. indusiatus-like species in Brazilian Amazonia. We show a clear congruence between detailed morphological data and ITS, nuc-LSU and atp6 based phylogenetic analyses and three new species are described within the Brazilian indusiate clade. These results highlight the importance of more detailed investigation, with the inclusion of molecular information, in Neotropical fungi.

Hidden fungal diversity from the Neotropics: Geastrum hirsutum, G. schweinitzii (Basidiomycota, Geastrales) and their allies.

Taxonomy of Geastrum species in the neotropics has been subject to divergent opinions among specialists. In our study, type collections were reassessed and compared with recent collections in order to delimit species in Geastrum, sect. Myceliostroma, subsect. Epigaea. A thorough review of morphologic features combined with barcode and phylogenetic analyses (ITS and LSU nrDNA) revealed six new species (G. neoamericanum, G. rubellum, G. brunneocapillatum, G. baculicrystallum, G. rubropusillum and G. courtecuissei). In additon, the presence of hairs on the exoperidium, a commonly used feature to diagnose Geastrum species, proved to be ineffective because it is a derived character within subsect. Epigaea.

Antiinflammatory, antioxidant and cytotoxic actions of beta-glucan-rich extract from Geastrum saccatum mushroom.

The Geastrum saccatum a mushroom, native to Brazil, is produced under natural conditions in the unexplored reserve of Mata da Estrela-RN. This species has curative properties for eye infections and diseases such as asthma. The tissues of this mushroom contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, moisture and ashes in amounts of 42.3%, 37.05%, 9.01, 1.4% and 10.2%, respectively. An extract from this mushroom was characterized by chemical analyses and (13)C and (1)H NMR spectroscopy. It contains high amount of glucose and traces of galactose. The signal appearing at 103.5 ppm was assigned to C1 of beta-glucose. The signals observed between 20 and 40 ppm suggest the presence of a glucan-protein compound. This glucan inhibited the lipid peroxidation at the dose of 0.27 mg/mL (59.1%) and it can protect cells against oxidative stress by scavenging of the hydroxyl (77%) and superoxide (88.4%) radicals at 0.27 mg/mL. The glucan (30 mg/kg) reduces the polymorphonuclear cell migration (57.6%). The ear edema induced by croton oil was inhibited by glucan (60.4% at 10 mg/kg) and by its association with diclofenac (5 mg/kg) (89.2%) or L-NAME (60 mg/kg) (86.23%). Histological analyses of the ear edema induced by croton oil in the presence of glucan (10, 30 or 50 mg/kg) showed a reduced degree of the polymorphonuclear cell migration. We concluded that the glucan has antioxidant, and antiinflammatory properties as well as its antiinflammatory effect are mediated by inhibition of both nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX).

More than one fungus in the pepper pot: Integrative taxonomy unmasks hidden species within Myriostoma coliforme (Geastraceae, Basidiomycota).

Since the nineteenth century, Myriostoma has been regarded as a monotypic genus with a widespread distribution in north temperate and subtropical regions. However, on the basis of morphological characters and phylogenetic evidence of DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the large subunit nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (LSU), four species are now delimited: M. areolatum comb. & stat. nov., M. calongei sp. nov., M. capillisporum comb. & stat. nov., and M. coliforme. Myriostoma coliforme is typified by selecting a lectotype (iconotype) and a modern sequenced collection as an epitype. The four species can be discriminated by a combination of morphological characters, such as stomatal form, endoperidial surface texture, and basidiospore size and ornamentation.

Discovery or Extinction of New Scleroderma Species in Amazonia?

The Amazon Forest is a hotspot of biodiversity harboring an unknown number of undescribed taxa. Inventory studies are urgent, mainly in the areas most endangered by human activities such as extensive dam construction, where species could be in risk of extinction before being described and named. In 2015, intensive studies performed in a few locations in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest revealed three new species of the genus Scleroderma: S. anomalosporum, S. camassuense and S. duckei. The two first species were located in one of the many areas flooded by construction of hydroelectric dams throughout the Amazon; and the third in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke, a protected reverse by the INPA. The species were identified through morphology and molecular analyses of barcoding sequences (Internal Transcribed Spacer nrDNA). Scleroderma anomalosporum is characterized mainly by the smooth spores under LM in mature basidiomata (under SEM with small, unevenly distributed granules, a characteristic not observed in other species of the genus), the large size of the basidiomata, up to 120 mm diameter, and the stelliform dehiscence; S. camassuense mainly by the irregular to stellate dehiscence, the subreticulated spores and the bright sulfur-yellow colour, and Scleroderma duckei mainly by the verrucose exoperidium, stelliform dehiscence, and verrucose spores. Description, illustration and affinities with other species of the genus are provided.

Glucans from the Caripia montagnei mushroom present anti-inflammatory activity.

Caripia montagnei is a basidiomycete species which contains polysaccharides with immunomodulatory properties. An extract of this mushroom underwent removal of the fat content by organic solvent and subsequently proteolysis. The aqueous phase obtained after proteolysis was precipitated with methanol yielding a fraction containing carbohydrates (98.7+/-3.3%) and protein (1.3+/-0.25%). Chemical analysis, infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) showed that the carbohydrate fraction contained (63.3+/-4.1) of beta-glucans and proteins (2.2+/-0.3%). These glucans (50mg/kg of body weight) significantly reduced the inflammatory infiltrate produced by thioglycolate-induced peritonitis by 75.5+/-5.2%, when compared to Wy-14643 (60.3+/-6.1%), PFOA (37.8+/-2.8%) and clofibrate (52.2+/-3.2%), p<0.001, which are of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR-alpha). L-NAME, a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, reduced the plantar edema in Wistar rats by 91.4+/-1.3% (p<0.001). A significant reduction in nitric oxide (NO) levels was observed in the exudates when the glucans was used in comparison to carrageenan. The C. montagnei glucans did not present signs of inducing cytotoxicity. A decrease in IL-1ra, IL-10 and IFN-gamma in the peritonitis model was observed. Thus, the results suggest that glucans from the C. montagnei mushroom is an effective immunomodulator and may have potential for anti-inflammatory properties.

Polysaccharides from the fungus Scleroderma nitidum with anti-inflammatory potential modulate cytokine levels and the expression of Nuclear Factor kB

Several pharmacological properties are attributed to polysaccharides and glucans derived from fungi such as tumor, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activity. In this work, the anti-inflammatory potential of polysaccharides from the fungus Scleroderma nitidum and their possible action mechanism were studied. The effect of these polymers on the inflammatory process was tested using the carrageenan and histamine-induced paw edema model and the sodium thioglycolate and zymosan-induced model. The polysaccharides from S. nitidum were effective in reducing edema (73 percent at 50 mg/kg) and cell infiltrate (37 percent at 10 mg/kg) in both inflammation models tested. Nitric oxide, a mediator in the inflammatory process, showed a reduction of around 26 percent at 10 mg/kg of body weight. Analysis of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines showed that in the groups treated with polysaccharides from S. nitidum there was an increase in cytokines such as IL-1ra, IL-10, and MIP-1β concomitant with the decrease in INF-γ (75 percent) and IL-2 (22 percent). We observed the influence of polysaccharides on the modulation of the expression of nuclear factor κB. This compound reduced the expression of NF-κB by up to 64 percent. The results obtained suggest that NF-κB modulation an mechanisms that explain the anti-inflammatory effect of polysaccharides from the fungus S. nitidum.