Synthesis of N-Hydroxysuccinimide Esters, N-Acylsaccharins, and Activated Esters from Carboxylic Acids Using I2/PPh3.

A method for the syntheses of isolable, active esters is described in which carboxylic acids are treated with triphenylphosphine, iodine, and triethylamine. Active esters accessible in this way include N-hydroxysuccinimide esters, N-hydroxyphthalimide esters (N-(acyloxy)phthalimides), N-acylsaccharins, pentafluorophenol esters, pentachlorophenol esters, N-hydroxybenzotriazole esters, and hexafluoro-2-propanol esters. The approach can be similarly applied toward the formation of N-acylsaccharins and N-acylimidazoles. The method is suitable for the formation of isolable active esters of aromatic and aliphatic activated acids as well as α-amino acid derivatives. These products are widely used reagents in organic synthesis, peptide synthesis, medicinal chemistry, and chemical biology (e.g., for bioconjugations). The method has broad substrate scope, uses simple and inexpensive reagents, avoids the use of carbodiimides or other coupling agents, and occurs at room temperature. Additionally, the diastereomers of compound Boc-Ala-NHCHPh are demonstrated to be distinguishable by 1H NMR (in DMSO-d6), allowing for a straightforward NMR method to establish the degree of racemization of activated esters of Boc-Ala or amide bond formations using Boc-Ala.

High Accuracy Prediction of PROTAC Complex Structures.

The design of PROteolysis-TArgeting Chimeras (PROTACs) requires bringing an E3 ligase into proximity with a target protein to modulate the concentration of the latter through its ubiquitination and degradation. Here, we present a method for generating high-accuracy structural models of E3 ligase-PROTAC-target protein ternary complexes. The method is dependent on two computational innovations: adding a "silent" convolution term to an efficient protein-protein docking program to eliminate protein poses that do not have acceptable linker conformations and clustering models of multiple PROTACs that use the same E3 ligase and target the same protein. Results show that the largest consensus clusters always have high predictive accuracy and that the ensemble of models can be used to predict the dissociation rate and cooperativity of the ternary complex that relate to the degrading activity of the PROTAC. The method is demonstrated by applications to known PROTAC structures and a blind test involving PROTACs against BRAF mutant V600E. The results confirm that PROTACs function by stabilizing a favorable interaction between the E3 ligase and the target protein but do not necessarily exploit the most energetically favorable geometry for interaction between the proteins.

Functional characterization of a PROTAC directed against BRAF mutant V600E.

The RAF family kinases function in the RAS-ERK pathway to transmit signals from activated RAS to the downstream kinases MEK and ERK. This pathway regulates cell proliferation, differentiation and survival, enabling mutations in RAS and RAF to act as potent drivers of human cancers. Drugs targeting the prevalent oncogenic mutant BRAF(V600E) have shown great efficacy in the clinic, but long-term effectiveness is limited by resistance mechanisms that often exploit the dimerization-dependent process by which RAF kinases are activated. Here, we investigated a proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) approach to BRAF inhibition. The most effective PROTAC, termed P4B, displayed superior specificity and inhibitory properties relative to non-PROTAC controls in BRAF(V600E) cell lines. In addition, P4B displayed utility in cell lines harboring alternative BRAF mutations that impart resistance to conventional BRAF inhibitors. This work provides a proof of concept for a substitute to conventional chemical inhibition to therapeutically constrain oncogenic BRAF.

N-Alkyl Carbamoylimidazoles as Isocyanate Equivalents: Exploration of the Reaction Scope for the Synthesis of Ureas, Hydantoins, Carbamates, Thiocarbamates, and Oxazolidinones.

The reaction of the HCl or trifluoroacetic acid salts of primary amines with carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) is shown to be a preparatively useful method for forming monosubstituted carbamoylimidazoles (28 examples) without the formation of symmetrical urea side products. The utility of these air- and water-stable crystalline carbamoylimidazole reagents was demonstrated by their reactions as blocked or masked isocyanate equivalents. Reaction with various classes of nucleophiles provides access to useful functional groups including ureas, carbamates, thiocarbamates, hydantoins, and oxazolidinones. A parallel synthesis library of 30 ureas was generated by the reaction of 6× carbamoylimidazole intermediates with 5× amines and triethylamine. The unsymmetrical urea-containing natural products macaurea A and pygmaniline A were also prepared in good yields (95% over four steps and 79% over three steps, respectively) using this approach. The reaction of carbamoylimidazoles with amino acid methyl esters followed by microwave irradiation in aqueous media gives hydantoins in high yields, further demonstrating the ability of carbamoylimidazoles as isocyanate surrogates. Three hydantoin-containing natural products including macahydantoin D and meyeniihydantoin A were prepared in nearly quantitative yields from proline methyl ester and carbamoylimidazoles. The reaction of carbamoylimidazoles with alcohols and thiols under basic conditions affords carbamates and thiocarbamates, respectively, in good yields. Lastly, a method for the preparation of chiral oxazolidinone heterocycles from chiral epoxy alcohols is demonstrated using a double displacement approach. The reactions occur with high regio- and stereoselectivity (dr ≥ 15:1 by 1H NMR) via a domino attack of the corresponding alkoxides with carbamoylimidazoles followed by an intramolecular attack of the in situ generated urea anion at the proximal position of the epoxide group.

Di-tert-butyl Ethynylimidodicarbonate as a General Synthon for the ß-Aminoethylation of Organic Electrophiles: Application to the Formal Synthesis of Pyrrolidinoindoline Alkaloids (±)-CPC-1 and (±)-Alline.

The reagent di-tert-butyl ethynylimidodicarbonate is demonstrated as a ß-aminoethyl anion synthetic equivalent. It can be used to install ethyleneamine groups by exploiting its terminal alkyne reactivity with common organic electrophiles. Reactions exemplified with this terminal ynimide reagent include additions to imines, aldehydes, ketones, pyridinium salts, Michael acceptors, epoxides, and Pd-catalyzed Sonogashira couplings. Subsequent regioselective [3 + 2] cycloadditions of the alkynyl-imides (ynimides) generate N,N-di-Boc imide-functionalized triazole and isoxazole heterocycles. Reduction of the ynimides with Pd-catalyzed hydrogenation generates ethyleneimides with easily removable N,N-di-Boc-carbamate protecting groups, allowing for a flexible ynimide-based approach to ethyleneamine installation. The utility of this two-step aminoethylation strategy was demonstrated in the short formal syntheses of pyrrolidinoindoline alkaloids (±)-CPC-1 and (±)-alline. Analogously, the reagent (N,N,N')-tri-Boc 2-ethynylhydrazine serves as a ß-hydrazinoethyl anion synthetic equivalent.

An Alumino-Mannich Reaction of Organoaluminum Reagents, Silylated Amines, and Aldehydes.

A multi-component coupling using organoaluminum reagents, silylated amines, and aldehydes results in the formation of tertiary amines. Both alkenyl- and alkylaluminum reagents undergo reaction with iminium ion substrates for which the corresponding Petasis borono-Mannich reactions are unsuccessful.

An Approach to the 9-Oxo-10-oxabicyclo[5.3.0]dec-2-ene Core of the Guaianolide and Pseudoguaianolide Sesquiterpenes via a Domino Electrocyclic Ring-Opening/Carboxylic Acid Trapping of a gem-Dibromocyclopropane.

A domino silver(I)-promoted electrocyclic 2π-disrotatory electrocyclic ring-opening/intramolecular nucleophilic trapping of [ n.1.0]-dibromocyclopropanes by tethered carboxylic acids results in cyclization to butyrolactones fused to six- and seven-membered carbocycles. In the case of bicyclic [4.3.0] lactones the cis-fused stereoisomer was formed, whereas for the bicyclic [5.3.0] lactones the trans-fused stereoisomer was formed. Optimal conditions for the reaction used silver(I) trifluoroacetate (2.0 equiv) in trifluoroethanol or with added pyridine (2.0 equiv) and NaPF6 (5.0 equiv). The dibromocyclopropane precursors were made through cyclopropanation with in situ-generated dibromocarbene. The trans-fused lactones are potentially useful building blocks for pseudoguaianolide, guaianolide, and xanthanolide total synthesis. A computational study on the conformational preferences of these systems indicates that the trans-fused bicyclic [5.3.0] butyrolactones are lower in energy than the corresponding cis-fused lactones at the B3LYP/cc-pVTZ level of theory.

DABO Boronate Promoted Conjugate Allylation of α,ß-Unsaturated Aldehydes Using Copper(II) Catalysis.

The first catalytic method for the selective 1,4-conjugate allylation of α,ß-unsaturated aldehydes is reported. The method employs an air-stable diethanolamine-complexed boronic acid (DABO boronate) as the allyl transfer reagent and promotes conjugate addition over 1,2-addition. A variety of aryl- and alkyl-substituted enals are tolerated, providing δ,ε-unsaturated aldehyde products in good yields and selectivities under mild conditions.

Organoboron-based allylation approach to the total synthesis of the medium-ring dilactone (+)-antimycin A(1b).

The stereoselective synthesis of (+)-antimycin A1b has been accomplished in 12 linear steps and 18% overall yield from (-)-ethyl lactate. A robust, scalable, and highly diastereoselective montmorillonite K10-promoted allylation reaction between an α-silyloxy aldehyde and a substituted potassium allyltrifluoroborate salt provides a general approach to the core stereochemical triad of the antimycin A family. The requisite (Z)-substituted potassium allyltrifluoroborate salt was synthesized using a syn-selective hydroboration/protodeboration of an alkynylboronate ester, followed by a Matteson homologation reaction. The total synthesis leverages an MNBA (Shiina's reagent)-mediated macrolactonization to generate the 9-membered dilactone ring and a late-stage PyBOP-mediated amide coupling employing an unprotected 3-formamidosalicylic acid fragment, thereby shortening the longest linear sequence and, perhaps most notably, generating the antimycin A C7-C8-C9 stereotriad in a single step using a single chiral pool-derived stereocenter.

Amidation reactions from the direct coupling of metal carboxylate salts with amines.

A general method for the synthesis of amides involving the direct coupling of alkali metal carboxylate salts with amines is described. Amidation of a wide variety of carboxylate salts with either free amines or their ammonium hydrochloride salts can be achieved using HBTU as a coupling agent in combination with Hünig's base. The reaction is highly efficient and is generally complete in as little as 1-2 h, giving the products in good to excellent yields. The protocol is valuable for the coupling of carboxylates for which the corresponding carboxylic acids or acyl chlorides are unstable, less conveniently manipulated/isolated, or are not commercially available. For example, the coupling of amines and α-amino acids with lithium 5-bromo-1H-pyrrole-2-carboxylate, whose corresponding acid that is prone to decarboxylation, allowed for the synthesis of 5-bromo-1H-pyrrole-2-carboxamides, which are analogues of the pyrrole-2-aminoimidazole marine alkaloids. The protocol can be combined with other reactions in a sequenced fashion, as exemplified by the synthesis of acetylenic amides, in a one-pot procedure, via the coupling of a lithium carboxylate salt formed initially by the addition of carbon dioxide to a lithiated terminal alkyne.

Total synthesis and antibacterial testing of the A54556 cyclic acyldepsipeptides isolated from Streptomyces hawaiiensis.

The first total synthesis of all six known A54556 acyldepsipeptide (ADEP) antibiotics from Streptomyces hawaiiensis is reported. This family of compounds has a unique mechanism of antibacterial action, acting as activators of caseinolytic protease (ClpP). Assembly of the 16-membered depsipeptide core was accomplished via a pentafluorophenyl ester-based macrolactamization strategy. Late stage amine deprotection was carried out under neutral conditions by employing a mild hydrogenolysis strategy, which avoids the formation of undesired ring-opened depsipeptide side products encountered during deprotection of acid-labile protecting groups. The free amines were found to be significantly more reactive toward late stage amide bond formation as compared to the corresponding ammonium salts, giving final products in excellent yields. A thorough NMR spectroscopic analysis of these compounds was carried out to formally assign the structures and to aid with the spectroscopic assignment of ADEP analogues. The identity of two of the structures was confirmed by comparison with biologically produced samples from S. hawaiiensis. An X-ray crystallographic analysis of an ADEP analogue reveals a conformation similar to that found in cocrystal structures of ADEPs with ClpP protease. The degree of antibacterial activity of the different compounds was evaluated in vitro using MIC assays employing both Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains and a fluorescence-based biochemical assay.

The Pan-Canadian Chemical Library: A Mechanism to Open Academic Chemistry to High-Throughput Virtual Screening.

Computationally screening chemical libraries to discover molecules with desired properties is a common technique used in early-stage drug discovery. Recent progress in the field now enables the efficient exploration of billions of molecules within days or hours, but this exploration remains confined within the boundaries of the accessible chemistry space. While the number of commercially available compounds grows rapidly, it remains a limited subset of all druglike small molecules that could be synthesized. Here, we present a workflow where chemical reactions typically developed in academia and unconventional in drug discovery are exploited to dramatically expand the chemistry space accessible to virtual screening. We use this process to generate a first version of the Pan-Canadian Chemical Library, a collection of nearly 150 billion diverse compounds that does not overlap with other ultra-large libraries such as Enamine REAL or SAVI and could be a resource of choice for protein targets where other libraries have failed to deliver bioactive molecules.

Structure-Based Design and Development of Phosphine Oxides as a Novel Chemotype for Antibiotics that Dysregulate Bacterial ClpP Proteases.

A series of arylsulfones and heteroarylsulfones have previously been demonstrated to dysregulate the conserved bacterial ClpP protease, causing the unspecific degradation of essential cellular housekeeping proteins and ultimately resulting in cell death. A cocrystal structure of a 2-ß-sulfonylamide analog, ACP1-06, with Escherichia coli ClpP showed that its 2-pyridyl sulfonyl substituent adopts two orientations in the binding site related through a sulfone bond rotation. From this, a new bis-aryl phosphine oxide scaffold, designated as ACP6, was designed based on a "conformation merging" approach of the dual orientation of the ACP1-06 sulfone. One analog, ACP6-12, exhibited over a 10-fold increase in activity over the parent ACP1-06 compound, and a cocrystal X-ray structure with ClpP confirmed its predicted binding conformation. This allowed for a comparative analysis of how different ligand classes bind to the hydrophobic binding site. The study highlights the successful application of structure-based rational design of novel phosphine oxide-based antibiotics.

A small-molecule inhibitor of D-cyclin transactivation displays preclinical efficacy in myeloma and leukemia via phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathway.

D-cyclins are universally dysregulated in multiple myeloma and frequently overexpressed in leukemia. To better understand the role and impact of dysregulated D-cyclins in hematologic malignancies, we conducted a high-throughput screen for inhibitors of cyclin D2 transactivation and identified 8-ethoxy-2-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-nitro-2H-chromene (S14161), which inhibited the expression of cyclins D1, D2, and D3 and arrested cells at the G(0)/G(1) phase. After D-cyclin suppression, S14161 induced apoptosis in myeloma and leukemia cell lines and primary patient samples preferentially over normal hematopoietic cells. In mouse models of leukemia, S14161 inhibited tumor growth without evidence of weight loss or gross organ toxicity. Mechanistically, S14161 inhibited the activity of phosphoinositide 3-kinase in intact cells and the activity of the phosphoinositide 3-kinases α, ß, δ, and γ in a cell-free enzymatic assay. In contrast, it did not inhibit the enzymatic activities of other related kinases, including the mammalian target of rapamycin, the DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit, and phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1. Thus, we identified a novel chemical compound that inhibits D-cyclin transactivation via the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B signaling pathway. Given its potent antileukemia and antimyeloma activity and minimal toxicity, S14161 could be developed as a novel agent for blood cancer therapy.

A hetero Diels-Alder approach to the synthesis of chromans (3,4-dihydrobenzopyrans) using oxonium ion chemistry: the oxa-Povarov reaction.

An oxa analogue of the well-known Povarov reaction has been developed for the synthesis of 3,4-dihydrobenzopyrans (chromans). The reaction involves the formal inverse electron demand [4 + 2] cycloaddition reaction of in situ-generated cationic aryl 2-oxadiene oxocarbenium ions with alkenes. The oxonium ion intermediates are generated through Lewis acid (SnCl(4))-promoted reactions of phenol-derived Rychnovsky-type mixed acetals. The yield and diastereoselectivity of the chroman products are found to depend upon the substitution pattern of the precursor alkene (i.e., monosubstituted, trans- or cis-disubstituted and cyclic alkenes). Generally, the reactions afford the endo-diastereomers as the major products, except for the reactions of trans-ß-methylstyrene, which afford exo-chromans. A comparison of the product distributions from the reactions of trans- and cis-ß-methylstyrene reveal that the reaction proceeds, at least in part, by a nonconcerted ionic pathway. Just as for the aza-Povarov reaction, there are two potential mechanisms for the reaction. The first mechanism involves a direct asynchronous [4 + 2] cycloaddition pathway, while the second occurs through the stepwise Prins addition of the alkene to the aryl 2-oxadiene oxonium ion, followed by an intramolecular aromatic substitution reaction of the resultant cation (i.e., a domino Prins/intramolecular Friedel-Crafts reaction).

Mild double allylboration reactions of nitriles and acid anhydrides using potassium allyltrifluoroborate.

The double allylboration of nitriles and acid anhydrides to form bis-allyl amines and esters, respectively, can be achieved through the use of potassium allyltrifluoroborate in the presence of boron trifluoride etherate at room temperature. The method described is relatively mild, exhibits chemoselectivity to other electrophiles present, avoids the use of metals, and features the use of an operationally stable and robust potassium organotrifluoroborate reagent.

Total Synthesis of the 2,5-Disubstituted γ-Pyrone E1 UAE Inhibitor Himeic Acid A.

The first total synthesis of the E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme inhibitor, himeic acid A, is reported. A McCombie reaction was used to form the core γ-pyrone via a 6π-electrocyclization. A dioxenone ring-opening/acyl ketene trapping reaction with a primary amide provided the unusual unsymmetrical imide functionality. Other key steps include the use of an Evans auxiliary alkylation (d.r. ≥ 95:5) to install the (S)-2-methyl succinic acid fragment and a cross-metathesis to install the unsaturated side-chain.

The ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1 as a therapeutic target for the treatment of leukemia and multiple myeloma.

The proteasomal pathway of protein degradation involves 2 discrete steps: ubiquitination and degradation. Here, we evaluated the effects of inhibiting the ubiquitination pathway at the level of the ubiquitin-activating enzyme UBA1 (E1). By immunoblotting, leukemia cell lines and primary patient samples had increased protein ubiquitination. Therefore, we examined the effects of genetic and chemical inhibition of the E1 enzyme. Knockdown of E1 decreased the abundance of ubiquitinated proteins in leukemia and myeloma cells and induced cell death. To further investigate effects of E1 inhibition in malignancy, we discovered a novel small molecule inhibitor, 3,5-dioxopyrazolidine compound, 1-(3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)-4-[(5-nitro-2-furyl)methylene]-3,5-pyrazolidinedione (PYZD-4409). PYZD-4409 induced cell death in malignant cells and preferentially inhibited the clonogenic growth of primary acute myeloid leukemia cells compared with normal hematopoietic cells. Mechanistically, genetic or chemical inhibition of E1 increased expression of E1 stress markers. Moreover, BI-1 overexpression blocked cell death after E1 inhibition, suggesting ER stress is functionally important for cell death after E1 inhibition. Finally, in a mouse model of leukemia, intraperitoneal administration of PYZD-4409 decreased tumor weight and volume compared with control without untoward toxicity. Thus, our work highlights the E1 enzyme as a novel target for the treatment of hematologic malignancies.

The antiparasitic agent ivermectin induces chloride-dependent membrane hyperpolarization and cell death in leukemia cells.

To identify known drugs with previously unrecognized anticancer activity, we compiled and screened a library of such compounds to identify agents cytotoxic to leukemia cells. From these screens, we identified ivermectin, a derivative of avermectin B1 that is licensed for the treatment of the parasitic infections, strongyloidiasis and onchocerciasis, but is also effective against other worm infestations. As a potential antileukemic agent, ivermectin induced cell death at low micromolar concentrations in acute myeloid leukemia cell lines and primary patient samples preferentially over normal hematopoietic cells. Ivermectin also delayed tumor growth in 3 independent mouse models of leukemia at concentrations that appear pharmacologically achievable. As an antiparasitic, ivermectin binds and activates chloride ion channels in nematodes, so we tested the effects of ivermectin on chloride flux in leukemia cells. Ivermectin increased intracellular chloride ion concentrations and cell size in leukemia cells. Chloride influx was accompanied by plasma membrane hyperpolarization, but did not change mitochondrial membrane potential. Ivermectin also increased reactive oxygen species generation that was functionally important for ivermectin-induced cell death. Finally, ivermectin synergized with cytarabine and daunorubicin that also increase reactive oxygen species production. Thus, given its known toxicology and pharmacology, ivermectin could be rapidly advanced into clinical trial for leukemia.

Synthesis and reactivity of N-alkyl carbamoylimidazoles: development of N-methyl carbamoylimidazole as a methyl isocyanate equivalent.

A high-yielding synthesis of N-methyl carbamoylimidazole from 1,1-carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) and MeNH(3)Cl is described. The product is a crystalline, readily storable, water-stable compound that reacts as a methyl isocyanate (MIC) substitute. Reaction of N-methyl carbamoylimidazole in the presence of a base such as triethylamine occurs with nucleophiles such as amines, protected and unprotected amino acids, thiols and alcohols. The product N-methylureas, carbamates and thiocarbamates are obtained in good to excellent yields, with reactions occurring in either organic solvents or water. The protocol for the synthesis of N-methyl carbamoylimidazole is both scalable and general, occurring in quantitative yield at scales ranging from 300 mg to 20 g. The success of this method relies upon the reaction of CDI with the ammonium salt rather than the free amine, resulting in a significant improvement in the yield of N-methyl carbamoylimidazole. The reaction presumably involves a proton transfer from MeNH(3)Cl to the CDI, which results in the release of MeNH(2) with simultaneous activation of the CDI as its protonated form. Other primary ammonium hydrochloride salts, including protected α-amino acid salts, give excellent yields of the corresponding N-alkyl carbamoylimidazoles and serve as alkyl isocyanate surrogates. The resultant N-alkyl carbamoylimidazoles can be converted to ureas in high yields without the formation of intermediary isocyanates.