Diaphragm reconstruction using a TachoSil patch as alternative to intrasellar packing for small focal diaphragm defects in pituitary surgery: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: During pituitary surgery, CSF leaks are often treated by intrasellar packing, using muscle or fat grafts. However, this strategy may interfere with the interpretation of postoperative MRI and may impact the quality of resection in cases of second surgery, due to the existence of additional fibrous tissue. We present an alternative technique, using a diaphragm reconstruction with a heterologous sponge combining fibrinogen and thrombin (TachoSil), applied in selected patients with low-flow CSF leaks. This study investigates the surgical outcome of patients treated with this strategy. METHODS: From a cohort of 2231 patients treated from June 2011 to June 2023 by endoscopic endonasal approach for pituitary surgery, the surgical technique of diaphragm repair with TachoSil patch performed in 55 patients (2.6%) was detailed, and the rate of closure failure was analyzed at 6 months postoperatively. No intrasellar packing was used and sellar floor reconstruction was performed whenever possible. The rate of postoperative CSF leak was compared with that reported in three previous publications that also used the TachoSil patch technique. RESULTS: Patients were mostly women (F/M ratio: 1.2) with a median age of 53.6 years. Surgery was indicated for non-functioning adenomas, Cushing's disease, acromegaly, and Rathke's cleft cysts in 38/55 (69.1%), 6/55 (10.9%), 5/55 (9.1%) and 6/55 (10.9%) patients respectively. The rate of postoperative CSF leak was 1.8% (n = 1/55), which was not significantly different from that reported in the three cohorts from the literature (2.8%, p > 0.05). No postoperative meningitis was recorded. CONCLUSIONS: In highly selected patients with low-flow CSF leaks related to small focal diaphragm defects, diaphragm reconstruction using a TachoSil patch can be a safe and valuable alternative to intrasellar packing.

Endoscopic endonasal access to the lateral recess of the sphenoid sinus.

BACKGROUND: The standard endoscopic endonasal approach gives access to the median sphenoid sinus, but not to its lateral part. We propose an endoscopic technique for lesions in the lateral sphenoid sinus. METHOD: Based on our experience with 28 patients, we have developed a less invasive approach to the lateral recess of the sphenoid sinus, limiting the opening of the maxillary sinus while avoiding resection of the inferior turbinate and ethmoidal cells. The technique is described. CONCLUSION: The proposed endoscopic approach is reliable and safe to treat CSF leak or tumours located within the lateral recess of the sphenoid sinus.

Pituitary surgery outcome in patients 75 years and older: a retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: As the population ages, the number of elderly patients with an indication for pituitary surgery is rising. Information on the outcome of patients aged over 75 is limited. This study reports a large series assessing the feasibility of surgical resection in this specific age range, focusing on surgical complications and postoperative results. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of patients with pituitary adenomas and Rathke's cleft cysts was conducted. All patients were aged 75 years or over and treated by a single expert neurosurgical team. A control population included 2379 younger adult patients operated by the same surgeons during the same period. RESULTS: Between 2008 and 2022, 155 patients underwent surgery. Indication was based on vision impairment in most patients (79%). Median follow-up was 13 months (range: 3-96). The first surgery was performed with an endoscopic transsellar approach, an extended endonasal transtuberculum approach and a microscopic transcranial approach in 96%, 3%, and 1% of patients, respectively. Single surgery was sufficient to obtain volume control in 97% of patients. From Kaplan-Meier estimates, 2-year and 5-year disease control with a single surgery were 97.3% and 86.2%, respectively. Resection higher than 80% was achieved in 77% of patients. No vision worsening occurred. In acromegaly and Cushing's disease, endocrine remission was obtained in 90% of non-invasive adenomas. Surgical complications were noted in 5% of patients, with 30-day mortality, hematoma, cerebrospinal fluid leak, meningitis, and epistaxis occurring in 0.6%, 0.6%, 1.9%, 0.6%, and 1.3% respectively. New endocrine anterior deficits occurred in only 5%, while no persistent diabetes insipidus was noted. Compared with younger patients, the complication rate was not statistically different. CONCLUSIONS: Surgery beyond the age of 75, mainly relying on an endoscopic endonasal transsellar approach, is effective and safe, provided that patients are managed in tertiary centers.

Double pedicled nasoseptal flap for skull base repair after endoscopic expanded endonasal approach.

BACKGROUND: Expanded endonasal approach offers a spectacular corridor for skull base tumour resection but requires reliable multilayer reconstruction techniques with a vascularized nasoseptal flap. METHOD: On the basis on our substantial experience of 136 patients operated on between January 2008 and January 2020, the double pedicled nasoseptal flap technique was developed for skull base repair. The technique is finely detailed. The nasal floor mucosa was preserved. CSF leakage occurred in 4% of patients. CONCLUSION: Double pedicled nasoseptal flap is a reproducible and efficient technique for skull base reconstruction after expanded endonasal approach and is associated with limited rhinological complications.

Expanded endoscopic endonasal approach for the resection of midline craniopharyngiomas with hypothalamic involvement.

BACKGROUND: With relevant surrounding neurological structures and potential involvement of the hypothalamus, the surgical management of craniopharyngiomas is complex. Compared to the transcranial approach, the expanded endoscopic endonasal approach provides direct access to the supradiaphragmatic and retrochiasmatic areas without crossing nerves and arteries. METHOD: Based on our substantial experience of 68 patients operated on between 2008 and 2022 by endoscopic surgery, our strategy has evolved such that all of our midline infundibular craniopharyngiomas with hypothalamic involvement are currently treated with an expanded endonasal route, except for tumours isolated to the third ventricle. Vascularized mucosal nasoseptal flaps are required for closure. Fine details of the related anatomy and surgical technique are described. CONCLUSION: Expanded endoscopic endonasal approach is a safe and effective route for resection of midline suprasellar craniopharyngiomas with hypothalamic involvement in centres of expertise.

Pituitary surgery for Cushing's disease.

BACKGROUND: Surgery is currently the first-line treatment of Cushing's disease. Surgery for Cushing's patients requires technical specificity, especially if no adenoma is identified on dedicated preoperative pituitary MRI. METHOD: From 2006 to 2020, 683 patients with Cushing's disease were operated on with a mononostril endoscopic endonasal approach by the same two senior neurosurgeons. Here, we report the particularities of this challenging surgery. CONCLUSION: A rigorous and planned surgical strategy avoids the pitfalls of Cushing's disease surgery and leads to a high rate of endocrine remission.

Mononostril endoscopic endonasal approach for pituitary surgery.

BACKGROUND: Most surgical teams currently consider that endoscopy has become the "gold standard" technique for the transsphenoidal approach to pituitary surgery. Pituitary adenomas are commonly benign tumours and should benefit from the least invasive approach. METHOD: In Foch Hospital, from 2006 to 2020, 2835 patients with pituitary adenomas were treated with a mononostril endoscopic endonasal approach. Here we describe the fine details of the nasal, sphenoidal and sellar steps of this technique. CONCLUSION: Complete preservation of the nasal corridor, luxation of the nasal septum and tailored sellar bone resection are essential for safe resection of pituitary adenomas.

Efficacy of endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing's disease in 230 patients with positive and negative MRI.

OBJECT: The primary objective was to assess the remission rate, and the secondary objectives were to evaluate the early complications and recurrence rate and to define the predictive factors for the remission and recurrence rates. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This prospective single-center study included 230 consecutive patients, operated on by a single surgeon for Cushing's disease via a transsphenoidal endoscopic endonasal approach, over a 6-year period (2008-2013). The patients included in this series were all adults (>18 years of age), who presented with clinical and biological characteristics of Cushing's disease confirmed based on dedicated MRI pituitary imaging. Biochemical remission was defined as a postoperative serum cortisol level <5 µg/dl on the 2nd day following surgery that required glucocorticoid replacement therapy. RESULTS: The remission rate for the global population (n = 230) with a follow-up of 21 ± 19.2 months concerned 182 patients (79.1%) divided into 132 patients (82.5%) with positive MRI and 50 patients (71.4%) with negative MRI with no statistically significant difference (p = 0.077). Complications occurred in 77 patients with no deaths. A total of 22% of patients had transient diabetes insipidus and 6.4% long-term diabetes insipidus, and no postoperatively CSF leakage was observed. The recurrence rate was 9.8% with a mean time of 32.7 ± 15.2 months. The predictive factors for the remission rate were the presence of pituitary microadenoma and a positive histology. No risk factors were involved regarding the recurrence rate. CONCLUSION: Whatever the MRI results, the transsphenoidal endonasal endoscopic approach remains the gold standard treatment for Cushing's disease. It was maximally effective with a remission rate of 79.1% and lower morbidity.

Silent, but not unseen: multimicrocystic aspect on T2-weighted MRI in silent corticotroph adenomas.

OBJECTIVE: Silent corticotroph adenomas (SCAs) present as nonfunctional pituitary tumours in routine pre-operative evaluation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of MRI T2-weighted sequences for detecting the corticotroph subtype pre-operatively. DESIGN: The pre-operative T2-weighted MRI sequences were retrospectively evaluated in patients with SCA and two control groups: clinically manifest corticotroph macroadenomas (CSMs) and nonfunctional gonadotroph macroadenomas (NFGMs). All were selected from a registry of 1096 patients in whom transsphenoidal surgery was performed in the same tertiary reference centre. T2-weighted MRI sequences were independently classified by one senior endocrinologist and one senior radiologist who were blinded to the clinical and histological features. PATIENTS: Seventeen patients with SCA, 14 with CSM and 60 with NFGM were included in this study. MEASUREMENTS: Pituitary MRI with T2-weighted sequences. Two aspects were retained: multiple microcysts (MMs) and the absence of microcysts. Hormonal data included plasma prolactin, IGF-1, testosterone or oestradiol, LH, FT4, TSH, morning plasma cortisol and an ACTH-stimulation test, when available. RESULTS: Multiple microcysts were present in 76% (13/17) of SCAs, 21% (3/14) of CSMs and 5% (3/60) of NFGMs. The presence of MMs in clinically nonfunctioning macroadenomas had a sensitivity of 76% and a specificity of 95% for predicting SCA. CONCLUSION: The presence of MMs in T2-weighted MRI is a good diagnostic tool to suggest the corticotroph subtype in an apparently nonfunctional pituitary tumour.

From Nelson's Syndrome to Corticotroph Tumor Progression Speed: An Update.

Since the first description of Nelson syndrome 60 years ago, the way to consider corticotroph pituitary neuroendocrine tumors (PitNETs) after bilateral adrenalectomy has evolved. Today, it is globally acknowledged that only a subset of corticotroph PitNETs is aggressive.After adrenalectomy, corticotroph tumor progression (CTP) occurs in about 30 to 40% of patients during a median follow-up of 10 years. When CTP occurs, various CTP speeds (CTPS) can be observed. Using simple metrics in patients with CTP, CTPS was reported to vary from a few millimeters to up to 40 mm per year. Rapid CTPS/ Nelson's syndrome was associated with more severe Cushing's disease, higher adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in the year following adrenalectomy, and higher Ki67 on pituitary pathology. Complications such as apoplexy, cavernous syndrome, and visual defects were associated with higher CTPS. During follow-up, early morning ACTH, absolute variations properly reflected CTPS. Finally, CTPS was not higher after than before adrenalectomy, suggesting that cortisol deprivation after adrenalectomy does not impact CTPS in a majority of patients.Taken together, rapid CTPS/ Nelson's syndrome probably reflects the intrinsic aggressiveness of some corticotroph PitNETs. The precise molecular mechanisms related to corticotroph PitNET aggressiveness remain to be deciphered. Regular MRIs combined with intermediate morning ACTH measurements probably provide a reliable way to detect early and manage fast-growing tumors and, therefore, limit the complications.

Grading and staging for pituitary neuroendocrine tumors.

Pituitary adenoma/pituitary neuroendocrine tumors (PitNETs) are the second most common primary intracranial tumor and the most frequent neuroendocrine tumors/neoplasms of the human body. Thus, they are one of the most frequent diagnoses in neuropathologist's practise. 2022 5th edition WHO Classification of Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Tumors does not support a grading and/or staging system for PitNETs and argues that histological typing and subtyping are more robust than proliferation rate and invasiveness to stratify tumors. Numerous studies suggest the existence of clinically relevant molecular subgroups encouraging an integrated histo-molecular approach to the diagnosis of PitNETs to deepen the understanding of their biology and overcome the unresolved problem of grading system. The present review illustrates the main issues involved in establishing a grading and a staging system, as well as alternative systems validated by independent series to date. The state of art of the current histological and molecular markers is detailed, demonstrating that a standardized and reproducible clinico-pathological approach, combined with the integration of molecular data may help build a workflow to refine the definition of PitNETs with 'malignant potential' and most importantly, avoid delay in patient treatment. Next molecular studied are needed to validate an integrated histo-molecular grading for PitNETs.

Prognostic Impact of Hypothalamic Perforation in Adult Patients With Craniopharyngioma: A Cohort Study.

CONTEXT: Outcome of craniopharyngioma is related to its locoregional extension, which impacts resectability and the risk of surgical complications. To maximize resection and minimize complications, optic tract localization, temporal lobe extension, and hypothalamic involvement are essential factors for surgical management. OBJECTIVE: To assess the outcome of craniopharyngiomas depending on their relation to the hypothalamus location. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of 79 patients with a craniopharyngioma who underwent surgery from 2007 to 2022. Craniopharyngiomas were classified in 3 groups, depending on the type of hypothalamus involvement assessed by preoperative magnetic resonance imaging: infra-hypothalamic (type A, n = 33); perforating the hypothalamus (type B, n = 40); and supra-hypothalamic (type C, n = 6). Surgical strategy was guided by the type of hypothalamic involvement, favoring endonasal approaches for type A and type B, and transcranial approaches for type C. RESULTS: Long-term disease control was achieved in 33/33 (100%), 37/40 (92%), and 5/6 (83%) patients in type A, B, and C, respectively. In type B, vision was improved in 32/36 (89%) patients, while hypothalamic function was improved, stable, or worsened in 6/40 (15%), 32/40 (80%), and 2/40 (5%) patients, respectively. Papillary craniopharyngiomas were found in 5/33 (15%), 9/40 (22%), and 3/6 (50%) patients in types A, B, and C, respectively. In 4 patients, BRAF/MEK inhibitors were used, with significant tumor shrinkage in all cases. CONCLUSION: Craniopharyngiomas located below the hypothalamus or perforating it can be safely treated by transsphenoidal surgery. For supra-hypothalamic craniopharyngiomas, postoperative results are less favorable, and documenting a BRAF mutation may improve outcome, if targeted therapy was efficient enough to replace surgical debulking.

Whole blood transcriptomic signature of Cushing's syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Cushing's syndrome is characterized by high morbidity and mortality with high interindividual variability. Easily measurable biomarkers, in addition to the hormone assays currently used for diagnosis, could reflect the individual biological impact of glucocorticoids. The aim of this study is to identify such biomarkers through the analysis of whole blood transcriptome. DESIGN: Whole blood transcriptome was evaluated in 57 samples from patients with overt Cushing's syndrome, mild Cushing's syndrome, eucortisolism, and adrenal insufficiency. Samples were randomly split into a training cohort to set up a Cushing's transcriptomic signature and a validation cohort to assess this signature. METHODS: Total RNA was obtained from whole blood samples and sequenced on a NovaSeq 6000 System (Illumina). Both unsupervised (principal component analysis) and supervised (Limma) methods were used to explore the transcriptome profile. Ridge regression was used to build a Cushing's transcriptome predictor. RESULTS: The transcriptomic profile discriminated samples with overt Cushing's syndrome. Genes mostly associated with overt Cushing's syndrome were enriched in pathways related to immunity, particularly neutrophil activation. A prediction model of 1500 genes built on the training cohort demonstrated its discriminating value in the validation cohort (accuracy .82) and remained significant in a multivariate model including the neutrophil proportion (P = .002). Expression of FKBP5, a single gene both overexpressed in Cushing's syndrome and implied in the glucocorticoid receptor signaling, could also predict Cushing's syndrome (accuracy .76). CONCLUSIONS: Whole blood transcriptome reflects the circulating levels of glucocorticoids. FKBP5 expression could be a nonhormonal marker of Cushing's syndrome.

Gonadotropic status in adult women with pituitary stalk interruption syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Pituitary stalk interruption syndrome (PSIS) is a rare cause of congenital hypopituitarism. Limited data exist on the gonadotropic status and fertility of adult women with PSIS. Our study aims to describe pubertal development and the evolution of gonadotropic function and fertility in adult women with PSIS. DESIGN: A retrospective multicentric French study. METHODS: We described gonadotropic function in 56 adult women with PSIS from puberty onward. We compared live birth rates per woman with PSIS with age-matched controls from the large French epidemiological cohort (CONSTANCES). Additionally, we assessed height, body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, other metabolic parameters, and socioeconomic status. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Among 56 women with PSIS, 36 did not experience spontaneous puberty. Of these, 13 underwent ovarian stimulation, resulting in 7 women having a total of 11 children. In the subgroup with spontaneous puberty (n = 20), 4 had a total of 8 pregnancies, while 6 developed secondary gonadotropic deficiency. Women with PSIS had fewer children than controls (0.33 vs 0.63, P = .04). Median height was also lower (160.5 vs 165.0 cm, P < .0001). Although mean blood pressure was lower in women with PSIS compared with controls (111.3/65.9 ± 11.2/8.1 vs 118.7/72.1 ± 10.1/7.7 mmHg, P < .001), there were no significant differences in other metabolic parameters, notably BMI and lipid profile. Employment/academic status was not different in the 2 groups, but fewer women with PSIS were in relationships (42% vs 57.6% in controls, P = .02). The fertility prognosis in patients with PSIS needs optimization. Patients should be informed about the likelihood of declining gonadotropic function over time.

BRAF and MEK inhibitor targeted therapy in papillary craniopharyngiomas: a cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: Targeted therapy (TT) with BRAF/MEK inhibitors has emerged as a potential treatment in papillary craniopharyngiomas (PCPs). However, standardized data on large cohorts are lacking. Our study aimed to assess real-life efficacy and safety of BRAF/MEK inhibition in patients with PCPs. DESIGN: Retrospective French multicenter study involving BRAF V600E-mutated PCP patients, treated with BRAF/MEK inhibitor combination dabrafenib and trametinib, from April 2019 to July 2023. METHODS: Objective response and clinical and safety outcomes were assessed after 3 months and at the last available follow-up during TT. RESULTS: Sixteen patients (8 females, mean age 50.5 ± 15.75 years), receiving either neoadjuvant therapy (NEO) for non-resectable tumors (n = 6), post-surgical adjuvant therapy (ADJ; n = 8), or palliative therapy (PAL) following failure of multimodal treatment (n = 2), were included.At the last follow-up (mean 7.6 ± 5.3 months), 12 patients showed subtotal response, 3 exhibited partial response, and 1 maintained stable disease. Mean volume reduction was 88.9 ± 4.4%, 73.3 ± 23.4%, and 91.8 ± 4.3% in the NEO, ADJ, and PAL groups, respectively.Targeted therapy resolved headaches in 5/5 patients and visual impairment in 6/9; 2/3 patients had improved neurological symptoms, 1/4 presented weight loss, and 2/14 recovered endocrine function.Targeted therapy was well-tolerated in 62.5% of cases; adverse events led to treatment discontinuation in 5 patients and definitive discontinuation in 3 cases. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, 94% of patients showed partial response or better to TT. Adverse events were acceptable. Further research is needed to establish standardized protocols; however, these results advocate for a NEO approach in invasive PCPs.

PIT-EASY survey: validation of the European Pituitary Pathology Group proposal for reporting pituitary neuroendocrine tumors.

The aim of this multicenter prospective survey called PIT-EASY was to assess the relevance of the European Pituitary Pathology Group (EPPG) diagnostic tools for pituitary neuroendocrine tumors (PitNETs) to improve the quality of their histological diagnosis. Each center performed at least 30 histological cases of PitNETs using the EPPG tools and assessed their value using a scorecard with 10 questions. For each center, the histological cases were carried out by pathologists with varying levels of expertise in pituitary pathology defined as junior, intermediate, and expert. Two hundred and ninety histological cases were collected from six French and Italian centers. The three EPPG tools were validated and regarded as helpful for a more accurate and time-efficient diagnosis. The usefulness of level 2 and level 3 of the "EPPG's multi-step approach for immunohistochemistry" including pituitary transcription factors (PIT1, TPIT, and SF1) and chromogranin, SSTRs, and P53 respectively was higher in "other non-functioning" (silent plurihormonal PIT1, silent corticotroph, and null cell): 88% vs 32%, p < 10-6 and 42% vs 14%, p = 0.002, respectively. The diagnostic algorithm proved more useful for junior pathologists (p = 0.0001) and those with intermediate experience. PIT-EASY survey confirmed the importance of a standardized approach to PitNETs for an accurate and reproducible diagnosis and served as validation of the EPPG proposal. The tool appeared to be of practical value to junior participants and staff with intermediate experience for safe routine diagnostic reporting.

Diagnosis and management of children and adult craniopharyngiomas: a French Endocrine Society/French Society for Paediatric Endocrinology & Diabetes Consensus Statement.

Craniopharyngiomas are rare hypothalamic-pituitary tumors found in young children, adolescents and adults, and their multidisciplinary management required, calls for consistent practices for practicioners, patients and families. The French Endocrine Society and French Society for Pediatric Endocrinology & Diabetes enlisted and coordinated adult and paediatric endocrinologists, neurosurgeons, pathologists, radiotherapists as well as psychologists, dieticians and a patient association, to draft a reference document on this severe disease. The management of craniopharyngiomas remains complex due to their aggressive nature, invasive behavior, and propensity for recurrence, requiring a sequential and measured therapeutic approach and follow-up in expert centers. Although patient survival rates are high, the consequences of both the tumor and its treatment can lead to serious comorbidities and impaired quality of life, particularly in those patients with lesional hypothalamic syndrome. Recent advances have allowed the two described tumor types - papillary and adamantinomatous - to be associated with distinct molecular signatures, specific pathophysiological mechanisms and ipso facto, distinct therapeutic approaches, including innovative medications for hyperphagia, that will continue to evolve. This consensus statement covers all stages in the management of patients with craniopharyngioma, from diagnosis to therapeutic strategies including the long-term follow-up.

The World Health Organization classifications of pituitary neuroendocrine tumours: a clinico-pathological appraisal.

The classification of tumours of the pituitary gland has recently been revised in the 2021 5th edition World Health Organization (WHO) Classification of Central Nervous System Tumours (CNS5) and 2022 5th edition WHO Classification of Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Tumours (ENDO5). This brief review aims to appraise the most relevant changes and updates introduced in the two classifications. A new nomenclature has been introduced in CNS5 and ENDO5 to align adenohypophyseal tumours with the classification framework of neuroendocrine neoplasia. The term pituitary neuroendocrine tumour (PitNET) with subtype information has therefore been adopted and preferred to adenoma. Pituitary carcinoma has been replaced by metastatic PitNET. The ICD-O coding has been changed from benign to malignant in line with NETs from other organs. Histological typing and subtyping based on immunohistochemistry for lineage-restricted pituitary transcription factors are regarded as the cornerstone for accurate classification. Such an approach does not fully reflect the complexity and dynamics of pituitary tumorigenesis and the variability of transcription factors expression. ENDO5 does not support a grading and/or staging system and argues that histological typing and subtyping are more robust than proliferation rate and invasiveness to stratify tumours with low or high risk of recurrence. However, the prognostic and predictive relevance of histotype is not fully validated. Recent studies suggest the existence of clinically relevant molecular subgroups and emphasize the need for a standardized, histo-molecular integrated approach to the diagnosis of PitNETs to further our understanding of their biology and overcome the unsolved issue of grading and/or staging system.

A suggested protocol for the endocrine postoperative management of patients undergoing pituitary surgery.

PURPOSE: Endocrine disorders are the most frequent postoperative complications in patients undergoing pituitary surgery. Given the absence of recent guidelines on the postoperative care following pituitary surgery, this article summarizes the available evidence on the topic. METHOD: We conducted a systematic search of PubMed up to 2021 and updated the search in December 2022. We retrieved 119 articles and included 53 full-text papers. RESULTS: The early postoperative care consists of the assessment for cortisol deficiency and diabetes insipidus (DI). Experts suggest that all patients should receive a glucocorticoid (GC) stress dose followed by a rapid taper. The decision for GC replacement after discharge depends on the morning plasma cortisol level on day 3 after surgery. Experts suggest that patients with a morning plasma cortisol<10 mcg/dL should receive GC replacement at discharge, and those with 10-18 mcg/dL a morning dose only, with formal assessment of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis at week 6 postoperatively. When the cortisol level is>18 mcg/dL, the patient can be discharged safely without GC, as suggested by observational studies. Postoperative care also includes a close monitoring of water balance. If DI develops, desmopressin is used only in case of uncomfortable polyuria or hypernatremia. The assessment of other hormones is indicated at 3 months postoperatively and beyond. CONCLUSION: The evaluation and treatment of patients following pituitary surgery are based on expert opinion and a few observational studies. Further research is needed to provide additional evidence on the most appropriate approach.