Worldviews, trust, and risk perceptions shape public acceptance of COVID-19 public health measures.

Because of the outbreak of COVID-19, most countries have implemented measures aimed at reducing the number of infected people. However, these measures only work if they are generally accepted by the public. We conducted a two-wave longitudinal survey in Switzerland (n = 1,223) to study the factors that would influence perceived risks and the acceptance of the measures. Our findings showed that people with individualistic worldviews, high general interpersonal trust, low social trust, a low level of perceived risks, and the conviction that risks other than health risks were neglected had less acceptance of the implemented measures compared with people who held the opposite views on the mentioned variables. The number of infected people declined between survey waves 1 and 2. This desired effect not only reduced people's perceived risks but also decreased their social trust and increased the conviction that other risks were neglected. Finally, the acceptance of the measures declined. Our data also support the idea that reduced risk perceptions and a decline in social trust are important drivers for the reduction in the acceptance of the measures in survey wave 2. Our results suggest that as soon as the measures attain success or the public is tired of the implemented restrictions, public acceptance declines, and it seems difficult to prolong the measures as may be desirable from an epidemiological standpoint. The importance of worldviews and trust for public acceptance of the measures further suggests the necessity of a political discussion about the implemented measures.

Intuitive toxicology in the 21st century-Bridging the perspectives of the public and risk assessors in Europe.

Three decades ago, several articles on the subjectivity in chemical risk judgments (i.e., labeled "intuitive toxicology") measured the divide between the public and toxicologists with different backgrounds regarding the validity of predicting health effects based on in vivo studies. Similar divides with impacts on societal discourse and chemical risk assessment practices might exist concerning alternative toxicity testing methods (i.e., in vitro and in silico). However, studies to date have focused either on the public's views of in vivo or stem cell testing or on experts' views of in vivo testing and potential alternatives (i.e., toxicologists and medical students), which do not allow for a direct investigation of potential divides. To fill this knowledge gap, we conducted two online surveys, involving members of the German-speaking public in Switzerland and European human health risk assessors, respectively. This article presents the results of these two surveys regarding the divide in the public's and risk assessors' perspectives on risk assessment based on in vivo, in vitro, and in silico testing. Particularly, the survey with the risk assessors highlights that, beyond scientific and regulatory barriers, alternatives to in vivo testing may encounter individual hurdles, such as higher uncertainty associated with them. Understanding and addressing these hurdles will be crucial to facilitate the integration of new approach methodologies into chemical risk assessment practices as well as a successful transition toward next-generation risk assessment, bringing us closer to a fit-for-purpose and more efficient regulatory landscape.

Biocidal products: Opportunities in risk assessment, management, and communication.

In the coronavirus disease 2019 era, biocidal products are increasingly used for controlling harmful organisms, including microorganisms. However, assuring safety against adverse health effects is a critical issue from a public health standpoint. This study aimed to provide an overview of key aspects of risk assessment, management, and communication that ensure the safety of biocidal active ingredients and products. The inherent characteristics of biocidal products make them effective against pests and pathogens; however, they also possess potential toxicities. Therefore, public awareness regarding both the beneficial and potential adverse effects of biocidal products needs to be increased. Biocidal active ingredients and products are regulated under specific laws: the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act for the United States; the European Union (EU) Biocidal Products Regulation for the EU; and the Consumer Chemical Products and Biocide Safety Management Act for the Republic of Korea. Risk management also needs to consider the evidence of enhanced sensitivity to toxicities in individuals with chronic diseases, given the increased prevalence of these conditions in the population. This is particularly important for post-marketing safety assessments of biocidal products. Risk communication conveys information, including potential risks and risk-reduction measures, aimed at managing or controlling health or environmental risks. Taken together, the collaborative effort of stakeholders in risk assessment, management, and communication strategies is critical to ensuring the safety of biocidal products sold in the market as these strategies are constantly evolving.

Childhood poisonings: Effects of ambiguous product characteristics on preschool children's categorization of household chemicals.

This study investigated preschool children's categorization and risk perception of products with ambiguous product characteristics (e.g., food-like packaging). These characteristics make it difficult for preschool children to categorize household chemicals correctly. This, therefore, increases the risk of unintentional poisoning. We hypothesized that ambiguity arises from different product characteristics, such as the type of packaging, the products' scent, or the packaging's color and transparency. In four behavioral tasks, N = 108 preschool children (M = 43 months, SD = 3) categorized different products and household chemicals with various types of packaging, colors, and scents. Individually wrapped dishwasher tablets were more likely to be categorized as edible than unwrapped ones. Furthermore, children who had interacted with any type of dishwasher tablet in the last 6 months performed better in identifying dishwasher tablets, regardless of packaging type. Household chemicals with a fruity scent were more likely to be categorized as drinkable than those with a chlorine scent. Finally, the children considered black bottles more dangerous and preferred them less than bottles of a different color. In contrast, bottle transparency generally did not seem to affect risk perception and preference. These findings confirm that ambiguous product characteristics influence children's categorization of unknown products and, thus, their risk perception and decision-making. Manufacturers and caregivers are advised to reduce the ambiguity of household chemicals by designing more neutral product packaging and choosing products with more neutral elements, respectively.

Trust and trustworthy artificial intelligence: A research agenda for AI in the environmental sciences.

Demands to manage the risks of artificial intelligence (AI) are growing. These demands and the government standards arising from them both call for trustworthy AI. In response, we adopt a convergent approach to review, evaluate, and synthesize research on the trust and trustworthiness of AI in the environmental sciences and propose a research agenda. Evidential and conceptual histories of research on trust and trustworthiness reveal persisting ambiguities and measurement shortcomings related to inconsistent attention to the contextual and social dependencies and dynamics of trust. Potentially underappreciated in the development of trustworthy AI for environmental sciences is the importance of engaging AI users and other stakeholders, which human-AI teaming perspectives on AI development similarly underscore. Co-development strategies may also help reconcile efforts to develop performance-based trustworthiness standards with dynamic and contextual notions of trust. We illustrate the importance of these themes with applied examples and show how insights from research on trust and the communication of risk and uncertainty can help advance the understanding of trust and trustworthiness of AI in the environmental sciences.

Consumers' decision-making process when choosing potentially risky, frequently used chemical household products: The case of laundry detergents.

Chemical household products are a common cause of accidents in the domestic sphere. Despite such products being associated with certain risks in the event of swallowing or contact with the skin or eyes, they are used in nearly every household worldwide for hygiene purposes. In most European countries, chemical household products feature warnings of the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) as well as other warnings. In this eye-tracking study (N = 147), which was conducted in a virtual environment, we examined (i) whether consumers use such warnings when choosing a laundry detergent, (ii) whether they consider information irrelevant to risk assessment and (iii) whether they make use of this information for their final product choice. For this, the participants were split randomly into three experimental groups (a risk priming group, an effectiveness priming group, and a control group) that each received different tasks while purchasing a laundry detergent. The results indicate that the warnings found on laundry detergents are effective when they are used, although the majority of consumers do not look at the warnings. Therefore, we suggest that the alternative placement of warnings or the use of simplified warnings should be considered to improve consumers' awareness of potential risks.

The Social Amplification of Risk Framework: A Normative Perspective on Trust?

Public trust is being lamented as the central victim of our new, digital information environment, a notion that is depicted in labeling our society as "posttruth" or "posttrust." Within this article, we aim to call this deficit view of public trust into question and kindle a more positive outlook in future research. For this, we utilize the Social Amplification of Risk Framework to discuss trust as an inherent aspect of social interactions and to question the frameworks' normative approach to public trust and risk perception. Utilizing a literature review of prior studies that investigated trust within the structure of SARF and a case study on the impacts of Fukushima on public trust in nuclear energy, we would like to argue that the current normative "trust deficit model" should be overcome and future risk research should increasingly focus on the opportunities of the digital informational environment for risk communication.

Chemophobia and knowledge of toxicological principles in South-Korea: perceptions of trace chemicals in consumer products.

Many consumer products are manufactured or synthesized from chemicals. However, consumers may be hesitant to purchase consumer products that are perceived as synthetic or derived with chemical substances. Prior studies suggested a preference for chemicals of natural origin and an irrational fear of synthetic chemicals, a phenomenon that is referred to as chemophobia. The aim of this study was two-fold as follows: to (1) investigate the levels of knowledge with respect to toxicological principles, chemophobia, and trust in stakeholders in South Korea and (2) experimentally test the effect of information provision on acceptance and willingness-to-buy for the specific case of trace chemicals in consumer products. For this purpose, an online survey and experiment was conducted with consumers in South Korea. Data suggested that in South Korea chemophobia correlated with an individual's knowledge regarding toxicological principles. Accordingly, a small intervention providing information on the dose-response mechanism increased consumers' acceptance of the presence of trace chemicals and subsequent willingness to purchase the products in this study. In conclusion, this investigation stresses the importance of educating the public regarding basic principles of toxicology to avoid chemophobia, while simultaneously discussing other factors that need to be taken into account such as attitudes and trust in communicators.

The Impact of Trust and Risk Perception on the Acceptance of Measures to Reduce COVID-19 Cases.

The SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19 has had a large impact on the lives of many people worldwide. At the peak of confirmed COVID-19 cases during the first wave in Switzerland (March-April 2020), we conducted a survey in the German-speaking part of the country (N = 1,585). The results suggest that the implemented measures are accepted. The survey participants are more concerned that other family members could catch the virus compared with themselves, and they are worried about its economic impact. The results suggest that how trust is measured is crucial because general trust and social trust have opposite effects on the participants' risk perceptions. People with high general trust perceive less risks associated with COVID-19 compared with people who have low general trust, and people with high social trust perceive more risks compared with people who have low social trust. The results further indicate that perceived risks are important drivers for the acceptance of the government's implemented measures to control COVID-19 and for more precautionary behavior (i.e., contact with fewer people and more hygienic behavior). Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Psychological factors that determine people's willingness-to-share genetic data for research.

Of all the information that we share, health and genetic data might be among the most valuable for researchers. As data are handled as particularly sensitive information, a number of pressing issues regarding people's preferences and privacy concerns are raised. The goal of the present study was to contribute to an understanding of people's reported willingness-to-share genetic data for science (WTS). For this, predictive psychological factors (eg, risk and benefit perceptions, trust, knowledge) were investigated in an online survey (N = 416). Overall, participants seemed willing to provide their genetic data for research. Participants who perceived more benefits associated with data sharing were particularly willing to share their data for research (ß = .29), while risk perceptions were less influential (ß = -.14). As participants with higher knowledge of the potential uses of genetic data for research perceived more benefits (ß = .20), WTS can likely be improved by providing people with information regarding the usefulness of genetic data for research. In addition to knowledge and perceptions, trust in data recipients increased people's willingness-to-share directly (ß = .24). Especially in the sensitive area of genetic data, future research should strive to understand people's shifting perceptions and preferences.

Barriers to the safe use of chemical household products: A comparison across European countries.

Chemical household products, such as cleaning and washing products or pest control and garden chemicals, are frequently involved in poisonings in private households. Consumer research has identified a number of barriers that impede the safe use of these products, ranging from unfamiliarity, to misconceptions and a lack of risk perception, to behavioural or situational barriers. This study aimed at investigating these barriers for consumers in eight European countries. Participants from eight European countries were recruited and asked to fill out an online questionnaire on their familiarity with hazard pictograms, perceptions and self-reported behaviour (Total: N = 5631, Austria: N = 731, Switzerland: N = 698, Germany: N = 711, France: N = 708, Italy: N = 695, Poland: N = 693, Sweden: N = 682, UK: N = 713). Across all countries, the lowest consumer familiarity was found for the meaning of the pictogram for "health hazard" (65% indicated having never seen it before). Small-sized differences between the eight countries were observed regarding people's familiarity, perceptions and self-reported behaviour. The results suggest that people apply hazard-related as well as product- and marketing-related strategies to judge the dangerousness of a chemical household product. These findings suggest a number of starting points for risk regulation and communication regarding hazardous household chemical products. Further, the results suggest that positive outcome expectancies and rules of thumb for judging the risks of a chemical household product are particularly relevant for people's self-reported safe use of chemical household products.

Food disgust sensitivity influences the perception of food hazards: Results from longitudinal and cross-cultural studies.

Two survey studies, one conducted in Switzerland and the other in nine countries, suggest that food disgust sensitivity is a personality variable that influences the perception of food hazards. For a large Swiss sample (N = 2813), we found that participants having higher food disgust sensitivity perceived more risks compared with participants having lower disgust sensitivity. A longitudinal analysis further suggests that changes in the participants' disgust sensitivity result in changes in the perception of food hazards. A second survey was conducted in Australia, China, England, France, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and the US (N = 5511). In all countries except China, significant correlations between food disgust sensitivity and risk perception were observed. The results suggest that food disgust sensitivity may be an important factor for the acceptance of novel or existing agri-food technologies.

Evaluating the Perceived Efficacy of Randomized Security Measures at Airports.

Both the increase in traveler numbers and the heightened threat posed by terrorism in recent years represent significant challenges to airport security measures. To ensure that a high level of security is maintained, randomized security checks have been proposed as a promising alternative to traditional security approaches. The use of randomized checks means that only a specific number of people are selected for security screening. However, the likely effects of such a change in security procedures on travelers' security perceptions and on the deterrence of criminal activities remain unclear. Thus, the present study examines how varying the percentage of people screened during security checks influences people's security perceptions. In two online experiments, the participants were asked to imagine that they sought to smuggle an explosive dummy past an airport security check. The only information provided was the number of people screened during security checks, which was manipulated between-subjects in the first experiment and within-subjects in the second experiment. The participants then had to rate their security perception (i.e., the perceived likelihood of successfully smuggling the explosive dummy). The findings show that people perceive traditional security checks to be safer than randomized checks, irrespective of whether 90% or 30% of people are screened. Hence, if randomized security checks would indeed be implemented, it would automatically lead to a decreased perception of security. Furthermore, this decreased security perception might lead to an actual reduction in security, as the deterrence of criminal activities could also be reduced.

"Chemophobia" Today: Consumers' Knowledge and Perceptions of Chemicals.

This mixed-methods study investigated consumers' knowledge of chemicals in terms of basic principles of toxicology and then related this knowledge, in addition to other factors, to their fear of chemical substances (i.e., chemophobia). Both qualitative interviews and a large-scale online survey were conducted in the German-speaking part of Switzerland. A Mokken scale was developed to measure laypeople's toxicological knowledge. The results indicate that most laypeople are unaware of the similarities between natural and synthetic chemicals in terms of certain toxicological principles. Furthermore, their associations with the term "chemical substances" and the self-reported affect prompted by these associations are mostly negative. The results also suggest that knowledge of basic principles of toxicology, self-reported affect evoked by the term "chemical substances," risk-benefit perceptions concerning synthetic chemicals, and trust in regulation processes are all negatively associated with chemophobia, while general health concerns are positively related to chemophobia. Thus, to enhance informed consumer decisionmaking, it might be necessary to tackle the stigmatization of the term "chemical substances" as well as address and clarify prevalent misconceptions.

Consumers' Risk Perception of Household Cleaning and Washing Products.

A large share of accidental and nonaccidental poisonings are caused by household cleaning and washing products, such as drain cleaner or laundry detergent. The main goal of this article was to investigate consumers' risk perception and misconceptions of a variety of cleaning and washing products in order to inform future risk communication efforts. For this, a sorting task including 33 commonly available household cleaning and washing products was implemented. A total of 60 female consumers were asked to place the cleaning and washing products on a reference line 3 m in length with the poles "dangerous" and "not dangerous." The gathered data were analyzed qualitatively and by means of multidimensional scaling, cluster analysis, and linear regression. The dimensionality of the sorting data suggests that both analytically (i.e., written and graphical hazard notes and perceived effectiveness) and intuitively driven risk judgments (i.e., eco vs. regular products) were applied by the participants. Furthermore, results suggest the presence of misconceptions, particularly related to consumers' perceptions of eco cleaning products, which were generally regarded as safer than their regular counterparts. Future risk communication should aim at dispelling these misconceptions and promoting accurate risk perceptions of particular household cleaning and washing products.

"The Dose Makes the Poison": Informing Consumers About the Scientific Risk Assessment of Food Additives.

Intensive risk assessment is required before the approval of food additives. During this process, based on the toxicological principle of "the dose makes the poison,Ë® maximum usage doses are assessed. However, most consumers are not aware of these efforts to ensure the safety of food additives and are therefore sceptical, even though food additives bring certain benefits to consumers. This study investigated the effect of a short video, which explains the scientific risk assessment and regulation of food additives, on consumers' perceptions and acceptance of food additives. The primary goal of this study was to inform consumers and enable them to construct their own risk-benefit assessment and make informed decisions about food additives. The secondary goal was to investigate whether people have different perceptions of food additives of artificial (i.e., aspartame) or natural origin (i.e., steviolglycoside). To attain these research goals, an online experiment was conducted on 185 Swiss consumers. Participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group, which was shown a video about the scientific risk assessment of food additives, or the control group, which was shown a video about a topic irrelevant to the study. After watching the video, the respondents knew significantly more, expressed more positive thoughts and feelings, had less risk perception, and more acceptance than prior to watching the video. Thus, it appears that informing consumers about complex food safety topics, such as the scientific risk assessment of food additives, is possible, and using a carefully developed information video is a successful strategy for informing consumers.

Public views of animal testing and alternatives in chemical risk assessment.

Next-Generation Risk Assessment (NGRA) aims to implement New Approach Methodologies (NAMs) into risk assessment and to rely on new in vivo testing in animals only as a last resort. However, various technical and regulatory hurdles impede their regulatory implementation. Assumptions about the public's expectations could act as barriers to the acceptance of NAMs. This study aimed at investigating public views of animal testing and potential alternatives, namely in vitro and in silico testing. An online survey was conducted (N = 965). The results suggest that people make trade-offs, as they experience negative affect regarding in vivo testing, which partly might explain their openness regarding certain alternatives. In vitro tests were attributed the highest ability to determine harmful effects of chemicals for different endpoints, followed by in vivo and in silico tests. Our results further showed that many people accept chemicals to be only tested with alternatives, with highest acceptance for household consumer products, food contact material or building materials and less accepting for medicines and foods. This article addresses potential challenges that might arise from public perceptions and thus, contributes to the bottom-up initiatives to overcome the hurdles to the implementation of NAMs in regulatory risk assessment.

Consumers' perceptions and acceptance of genome editing in agriculture: Insights from the United States of America and Switzerland.

The terms "New Genomic Techniques" (NGTs) or "Genome Editing" refer to various methods that allow finding, cleaving, and repairing specific sequences in the genome. These techniques could contribute to managing various challenges in plant breeding and agriculture. Aside from regulatory uncertainties, the lack of consumer acceptance has frequently been cited as a significant barrier to the widespread use of NGTs in plant breeding and agriculture across the planet. This study was based on an anonymous online survey (N = 1202). It investigated what consumers from two countries that differ in gene technology regulation, namely the United States of America and Switzerland, thought about three specific applications of NGTs in plant breeding (i.e., blight-resistant potato, gluten-free wheat, cold-resistant soybean). The study highlights the importance of the affect heuristic for acceptance, as half of the participants in both countries expressed positive feelings regarding the three applications, a quarter of the participants expressed negative, and the remaining participants expressed torn or neutral emotions. Some evidence was provided that the regulatory context might have acted as a risk cue, as participants in Switzerland expressed more negative feelings, perceptions, and lower acceptance than participants from the United States of America. Lastly, our findings underscore the importance of a collaboration between the life sciences and social sciences in balancing technological innovations and public perceptions and acceptance, which have been shown in this study to be impacted by affect, values, and context.

When information security depends on font size: how the saliency of warnings affects protection behavior.

Prior research on how to improve the effectiveness of information security warnings has predominantly focused on either the informational content of warnings or their visual saliency. In an online experiment (N = 1'486), we disentangle the effect of both manipulations and demonstrate that both factors simultaneously influence decision making. Our data indicate that the proportion of people who engage in protection behavior can be increased by roughly 65% by making a particular warning message more visually salient (i.e. a more conspicuous visual design is used). We also show that varying the message's saliency can make people behave very differently when confronted with the same threat or behave very similarly when confronted with threats that differ widely in terms of severity of outcomes. Our results suggest that the visual design of a warning may warrant at least as much attention as the informational content that the warning message conveys.