ATML1 Regulates the Differentiation of ER Body-containing Large Pavement Cells in Rosette Leaves of Brassicaceae Plants.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-derived organelles, ER bodies, participate in the defense against herbivores in Brassicaceae plants. ER bodies accumulate ß-glucosidases, which hydrolyse specialized thioglucosides known as glucosinolates to generate bioactive substances. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the leaf ER (LER) bodies are formed in large pavement cells, which are found in the petioles, margins, and blades of rosette leaves. However, the regulatory mechanisms involved in establishing large pavement cells are unknown. Here, we show that the ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA MERISTEM L1 LAYER (ATML1) transcription factor regulates the formation of LER bodies in large pavement cells of rosette leaves. Overexpression of ATML1 enhanced the expression of LER body-related genes and the number of LER body-containing large pavement cells, whereas its knockout resulted in opposite effects. ATML1 enhances endoreduplication and cell size through LOSS OF GIANT CELLS FROM ORGANS (LGO). Although the overexpression and knockout of LGO affected the appearance of large pavement cells in Arabidopsis, the effect on LER body-related gene expression and LER body formation was weak. LER body-containing large pavement cells were also found in Eutrema salsugineum, another Brassicaceae species. Our results demonstrate that ATML1 establishes large pavement cells to induce LER body formation in Brassicaceae plants, and thereby possibly contributes to the defense against herbivores.

ER body-resident myrosinases and tryptophan specialized metabolism modulate root microbiota assembly.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) bodies are ER-derived structures that contain a large amount of PYK10 myrosinase, which hydrolyzes tryptophan (Trp)-derived indole glucosinolates (IGs). Given the well-described role of IGs in root-microbe interactions, we hypothesized that ER bodies in roots are important for interaction with soil-borne microbes at the root-soil interface. We used mutants impaired in ER bodies (nai1), ER body-resident myrosinases (pyk10bglu21), IG biosynthesis (myb34/51/122), and Trp specialized metabolism (cyp79b2b3) to profile their root microbiota community in natural soil, evaluate the impact of axenically collected root exudates on soil or synthetic microbial communities, and test their response to fungal endophytes in a mono-association setup. Tested mutants exhibited altered bacterial and fungal communities in rhizoplane and endosphere, respectively. Natural soils and bacterial synthetic communities treated with mutant root exudates exhibited distinctive microbial profiles from those treated with wild-type (WT) exudates. Most tested endophytes severely restricted the growth of cyp79b2b3, a part of which also impaired the growth of pyk10bglu21. Our results suggest that root ER bodies and their resident myrosinases modulate the profile of root-secreted metabolites and thereby influence root-microbiota interactions.

Gene expression evolution in pattern-triggered immunity within Arabidopsis thaliana and across Brassicaceae species.

Plants recognize surrounding microbes by sensing microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) to activate pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). Despite their significance for microbial control, the evolution of PTI responses remains largely uncharacterized. Here, by employing comparative transcriptomics of six Arabidopsis thaliana accessions and three additional Brassicaceae species to investigate PTI responses, we identified a set of genes that commonly respond to the MAMP flg22 and genes that exhibit species-specific expression signatures. Variation in flg22-triggered transcriptome responses across Brassicaceae species was incongruent with their phylogeny, while expression changes were strongly conserved within A. thaliana. We found the enrichment of WRKY transcription factor binding sites in the 5'-regulatory regions of conserved and species-specific responsive genes, linking the emergence of WRKY-binding sites with the evolution of gene expression patterns during PTI. Our findings advance our understanding of the evolution of the transcriptome during biotic stress.

Tryptophan metabolism and bacterial commensals prevent fungal dysbiosis in Arabidopsis roots.

In nature, roots of healthy plants are colonized by multikingdom microbial communities that include bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes. A key question is how plants control the assembly of these diverse microbes in roots to maintain host-microbe homeostasis and health. Using microbiota reconstitution experiments with a set of immunocompromised Arabidopsis thaliana mutants and a multikingdom synthetic microbial community (SynCom) representative of the natural A. thaliana root microbiota, we observed that microbiota-mediated plant growth promotion was abolished in most of the tested immunocompromised mutants. Notably, more than 40% of between-genotype variation in these microbiota-induced growth differences was explained by fungal but not bacterial or oomycete load in roots. Extensive fungal overgrowth in roots and altered plant growth was evident at both vegetative and reproductive stages for a mutant impaired in the production of tryptophan-derived, specialized metabolites (cyp79b2/b3). Microbiota manipulation experiments with single- and multikingdom microbial SynComs further demonstrated that 1) the presence of fungi in the multikingdom SynCom was the direct cause of the dysbiotic phenotype in the cyp79b2/b3 mutant and 2) bacterial commensals and host tryptophan metabolism are both necessary to control fungal load, thereby promoting A. thaliana growth and survival. Our results indicate that protective activities of bacterial root commensals are as critical as the host tryptophan metabolic pathway in preventing fungal dysbiosis in the A. thaliana root endosphere.

Retrograde sulfur flow from glucosinolates to cysteine in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Specialized (secondary) metabolic pathways in plants have long been considered one-way routes of leading primary metabolite precursors to bioactive end products. Conversely, endogenous degradation of such "end" products in plant tissues has been observed following environmental stimuli, including nutrition stress. Therefore, it is of general interest whether specialized metabolites can be reintegrated into primary metabolism to recover the invested resources, especially in the case of nitrogen- or sulfur-rich compounds. Here, we demonstrate that endogenous glucosinolates (GLs), a class of sulfur-rich plant metabolites, are exploited as a sulfur source by the reallocation of sulfur atoms to primary metabolites such as cysteine in Arabidopsis thaliana Tracer experiments using 34S- or deuterium-labeled GLs depicted the catabolic processing of GL breakdown products in which sulfur is mobilized from the thioglucoside group in GL molecules, potentially accompanied by the release of the sulfate group. Moreover, we reveal that beta-glucosidases BGLU28 and BGLU30 are the major myrosinases that initiate sulfur reallocation by hydrolyzing particular GL species, conferring sulfur deficiency tolerance in A. thaliana, especially during early development. The results delineate the physiological function of GL as a sulfur reservoir, in addition to their well-known functions as defense chemicals. Overall, our findings demonstrate the bidirectional interaction between primary and specialized metabolism, which enhances our understanding of the underlying metabolic mechanisms via which plants adapt to their environments.

Loss of MYB34 Transcription Factor Supports the Backward Evolution of Indole Glucosinolate Biosynthesis in a Subclade of the Camelineae Tribe and Releases the Feedback Loop in This Pathway in Arabidopsis.

Glucosinolates are specialized defensive metabolites characteristic of the Brassicales order. Among them, aliphatic and indolic glucosinolates (IGs) are usually highly abundant in species from the Brassicaceae family. The exceptions this trend are species representing a subclade of the Camelineae tribe, including Capsella and Camelina genera, which have reduced capacity to produce and metabolize IGs. Our study addresses the contribution of specific glucosinolate-related myeloblastosis (MYB) transcription factors to this unprecedented backward evolution of IG biosynthesis. To this end, we performed phylogenomic and functional studies of respective MYB proteins. The obtained results revealed weakened conservation of glucosinolate-related MYB transcription factors, including loss of functional MYB34 protein, in the investigated species. We showed that the introduction of functional MYB34 from Arabidopsis thaliana partially restores IG biosynthesis in Capsella rubella, indicating that the loss of this transcription factor contributes to the backward evolution of this metabolic pathway. Finally, we performed an analysis of the impact of particular myb mutations on the feedback loop in IG biosynthesis, which drives auxin overproduction, metabolic dysregulation and strong growth retardation caused by mutations in IG biosynthetic genes. This uncovered the unique function of MYB34 among IG-related MYBs in this feedback regulation and consequently in IG conservation in Brassicaceae plants.

Targeted and Untargeted Metabolomic Analyses Reveal Organ Specificity of Specialized Metabolites in the Model Grass Brachypodium distachyon.

Brachypodium distachyon, because of its fully sequenced genome, is frequently used as a model grass species. However, its metabolome, which constitutes an indispensable element of complex biological systems, remains poorly characterized. In this study, we conducted comprehensive, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based metabolomic examination of roots, leaves and spikes of Brachypodium Bd21 and Bd3-1 lines. Our pathway enrichment analysis emphasised the accumulation of specialized metabolites representing the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway in parallel with processes related to nucleotide, sugar and amino acid metabolism. Similarities in metabolite profiles between both lines were relatively high in roots and leaves while spikes showed higher metabolic variance within both accessions. In roots, differences between Bd21 and Bd3-1 lines were manifested primarily in diterpenoid metabolism, while differences within spikes and leaves concerned nucleotide metabolism and nitrogen management. Additionally, sulphate-containing metabolites differentiated Bd21 and Bd3-1 lines in spikes. Structural analysis based on MS fragmentation spectra enabled identification of 93 specialized metabolites. Among them phenylpropanoids and flavonoids derivatives were mainly determined. As compared with closely related barley and wheat species, metabolic profile of Brachypodium is characterized with presence of threonate derivatives of hydroxycinnamic acids.

A Network of Phosphate Starvation and Immune-Related Signaling and Metabolic Pathways Controls the Interaction between Arabidopsis thaliana and the Beneficial Fungus Colletotrichum tofieldiae.

The beneficial root-colonizing fungus Colletotrichum tofieldiae mediates plant growth promotion (PGP) upon phosphate (Pi) starvation in Arabidopsis thaliana. This activity is dependent on the Trp metabolism of the host, including indole glucosinolate (IG) hydrolysis. Here, we show that C. tofieldiae resolves several Pi starvation-induced molecular processes in the host, one of which is the downregulation of auxin signaling in germ-free plants, which is restored in the presence of the fungus. Using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, we generated an Arabidopsis triple mutant lacking three homologous nitrilases (NIT1 to NIT3) that are thought to link IG-hydrolysis products with auxin biosynthesis. Retained C. tofieldiae-induced PGP in nit1/2/3 mutant plants demonstrated that this metabolic connection is dispensable for the beneficial activity of the fungus. This suggests that either there is an alternative metabolic link between IG-hydrolysis products and auxin biosynthesis, or C. tofieldiae restores auxin signaling independently of IG metabolism. We show that C. tofieldiae, similar to pathogenic microorganisms, triggers Arabidopsis immune pathways that rely on IG metabolism as well as salicylic acid and ethylene signaling. Analysis of IG-deficient myb mutants revealed that these metabolites are, indeed, important for control of in planta C. tofieldiae growth: however, enhanced C. tofieldiae biomass does not necessarily negatively correlate with PGP. We show that Pi deficiency enables more efficient colonization of Arabidopsis by C. tofieldiae, possibly due to the MYC2-mediated repression of ethylene signaling and changes in the constitutive IG composition in roots.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Moonlighting Function of Phytochelatin Synthase1 in Extracellular Defense against Fungal Pathogens.

Phytochelatin synthase (PCS) is a key component of heavy metal detoxification in plants. PCS catalyzes both the synthesis of the peptide phytochelatin from glutathione and the degradation of glutathione conjugates via peptidase activity. Here, we describe a role for PCS in disease resistance against plant pathogenic fungi. The pen4 mutant, which is allelic to cadmium insensitive1 (cad1/pcs1) mutants, was recovered from a screen for Arabidopsis mutants with reduced resistance to the nonadapted barley fungal pathogen Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei PCS1, which is found in the cytoplasm of cells of healthy plants, translocates upon pathogen attack and colocalizes with the PEN2 myrosinase on the surface of immobilized mitochondria. pcs1 and pen2 mutant plants exhibit similar metabolic defects in the accumulation of pathogen-inducible indole glucosinolate-derived compounds, suggesting that PEN2 and PCS1 act in the same metabolic pathway. The function of PCS1 in this pathway is independent of phytochelatin synthesis and deglycination of glutathione conjugates, as catalytic-site mutants of PCS1 are still functional in indole glucosinolate metabolism. In uncovering a peptidase-independent function for PCS1, we reveal this enzyme to be a moonlighting protein important for plant responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses.

The role of CYP71A12 monooxygenase in pathogen-triggered tryptophan metabolism and Arabidopsis immunity.

Effective defense of Arabidopsis against filamentous pathogens requires two mechanisms, both of which involve biosynthesis of tryptophan (Trp)-derived metabolites. Extracellular resistance involves products of PEN2-dependent metabolism of indole glucosinolates (IGs). Restriction of further fungal growth requires PAD3-dependent camalexin and other, as yet uncharacterized, indolics. This study focuses on the function of CYP71A12 monooxygenase in pathogen-triggered Trp metabolism, including the biosynthesis of indole-3-carboxylic acid (ICA). Moreover, to investigate the contribution of CYP71A12 and its products to Arabidopsis immunity, we analyzed infection phenotypes of multiple mutant lines combining pen2 with pad3, cyp71A12, cyp71A13 or cyp82C2. Metabolite profiling of cyp71A12 lines revealed a reduction in ICA accumulation. Additionally, analysis of mutant plants showed that low amounts of ICA can form during an immune response by CYP71B6/AAO1-dependent metabolism of indole acetonitrile, but not via IG hydrolysis. Infection assays with Plectosphaerella cucumerina and Colletotrichum tropicale, two pathogens with different lifestyles, revealed cyp71A12-, cyp71A13- and cyp82C2-associated defects associated with Arabidopsis immunity. Our results indicate that CYP71A12, but not CYP71A13, is the major enzyme responsible for the accumulation of ICA in Arabidopsis in response to pathogen ingression. We also show that both enzymes are key players in the resistance of Arabidopsis against selected filamentous pathogens after they invade.

Glutathione Transferase U13 Functions in Pathogen-Triggered Glucosinolate Metabolism.

Glutathione (GSH) and indole glucosinolates (IGs) exert key functions in the immune system of the model plant Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Appropriate GSH levels are important for execution of both pre- and postinvasive disease resistance mechanisms to invasive pathogens, whereas an intact PENETRATION2 (PEN2)-pathway for IG metabolism is essential for preinvasive resistance in this species. Earlier indirect evidence suggested that the latter pathway involves conjugation of GSH with unstable products of IG metabolism and further processing of the resulting adducts to biologically active molecules. Here we describe the identification of Glutathione-S-Transferase class-tau member 13 (GSTU13) as an indispensable component of the PEN2 immune pathway for IG metabolism. gstu13 mutant plants are defective in the pathogen-triggered biosynthesis of end products of the PEN2 pathway, including 4-O-ß-d-glucosyl-indol-3-yl formamide, indole-3-ylmethyl amine, and raphanusamic acid. In line with this metabolic defect, lack of functional GSTU13 results in enhanced disease susceptibility toward several fungal pathogens including Erysiphe pisi, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Plectosphaerella cucumerina Seedlings of gstu13 plants fail also to deposit the (1,3)-ß-glucan cell wall polymer, callose, after recognition of the bacterial flg22 epitope. We show that GSTU13 mediates specifically the role of GSH in IG metabolism without noticeable impact on other immune functions of this tripeptide. We postulate that GSTU13 connects GSH with the pathogen-triggered PEN2 pathway for IG metabolism to deliver metabolites that may have numerous functions in the innate immune system of Arabidopsis.

Identification of drought responsive proteins and related proteomic QTLs in barley.

Drought is a major abiotic stress that negatively influences crop yield. Breeding strategies for improved drought resistance require an improved knowledge of plant drought responses. We therefore applied drought to barley recombinant inbred lines and their parental genotypes shortly before tillering. A large-scale proteomic analysis of leaf and root tissue revealed proteins that respond to drought in a genotype-specific manner. Of these, Rubisco activase in chloroplast, luminal binding protein in endoplasmic reticulum, phosphoglycerate mutase, glutathione S-transferase, heat shock proteins and enzymes involved in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis showed strong genotype×environment interactions. These data were subjected to genetic linkage analysis and the identification of proteomic QTLs that have potential value in marker-assisted breeding programs.

PYK10 myrosinase reveals a functional coordination between endoplasmic reticulum bodies and glucosinolates in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The endoplasmic reticulum body (ER body) is an organelle derived from the ER that occurs in only three families of the order Brassicales and is suggested to be involved in plant defense. ER bodies in Arabidopsis thaliana contain large amounts of ß-glucosidases, but the physiological functions of ER bodies and these enzymes remain largely unclear. Here we show that PYK10, the most abundant ß-glucosidase in A. thaliana root ER bodies, hydrolyzes indole glucosinolates (IGs) in addition to the previously reported in vitro substrate scopolin. We found a striking co-expression between ER body-related genes (including PYK10), glucosinolate biosynthetic genes and the genes for so-called specifier proteins affecting the terminal products of myrosinase-mediated glucosinolate metabolism, indicating that these systems have been integrated into a common transcriptional network. Consistent with this, comparative metabolite profiling utilizing a number of A. thaliana relatives within Brassicaceae identified a clear phylogenetic co-occurrence between ER bodies and IGs, but not between ER bodies and scopolin. Collectively, our findings suggest a functional link between ER bodies and glucosinolate metabolism in planta. In addition, in silico three-dimensional modeling, combined with phylogenomic analysis, suggests that PYK10 represents a clade of 16 myrosinases that arose independently from the other well-documented class of six thioglucoside glucohydrolases. These findings provide deeper insights into how glucosinolates are metabolized in cruciferous plants and reveal variation of the myrosinase-glucosinolate system within individual plants.

Dysfunction of Arabidopsis MACPF domain protein activates programmed cell death via tryptophan metabolism in MAMP-triggered immunity.

Plant immune responses triggered upon recognition of microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) typically restrict pathogen growth without a host cell death response. We isolated two Arabidopsis mutants, derived from accession Col-0, that activated cell death upon inoculation with nonadapted fungal pathogens. Notably, the mutants triggered cell death also when treated with bacterial MAMPs such as flg22. Positional cloning identified NSL1 (Necrotic Spotted Lesion 1) as a responsible gene for the phenotype of the two mutants, whereas nsl1 mutations of the accession No-0 resulted in necrotic lesion formation without pathogen inoculation. NSL1 encodes a protein of unknown function containing a putative membrane-attack complex/perforin (MACPF) domain. The application of flg22 increased salicylic acid (SA) accumulation in the nsl1 plants derived from Col-0, while depletion of isochorismate synthase 1 repressed flg22-inducible lesion formation, indicating that elevated SA is needed for the cell death response. nsl1 plants of Col-0 responded to flg22 treatment with an RBOHD-dependent oxidative burst, but this response was dispensable for the nsl1-dependent cell death. Surprisingly, loss-of-function mutations in PEN2, involved in the metabolism of tryptophan (Trp)-derived indole glucosinolates, suppressed the flg22-induced and nsl1-dependent cell death. Moreover, the increased accumulation of SA in the nsl1 plants was abrogated by blocking Trp-derived secondary metabolite biosynthesis, whereas the nsl1-dependent hyperaccumulation of PEN2-dependent compounds was unaffected when the SA biosynthesis pathway was blocked. Collectively, these findings suggest that MAMP-triggered immunity activates a genetically programmed cell death in the absence of the functional MACPF domain protein NSL1 via Trp-derived secondary metabolite-mediated activation of the SA pathway.

YODA MAP3K kinase regulates plant immune responses conferring broad-spectrum disease resistance.

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) cascades play essential roles in plants by transducing developmental cues and environmental signals into cellular responses. Among the latter are microbe-associated molecular patterns perceived by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which trigger immunity. We found that YODA (YDA) - a MAPK kinase kinase regulating several Arabidopsis developmental processes, like stomatal patterning - also modulates immune responses. Resistance to pathogens is compromised in yda alleles, whereas plants expressing the constitutively active YDA (CA-YDA) protein show broad-spectrum resistance to fungi, bacteria, and oomycetes with different colonization modes. YDA functions in the same pathway as ERECTA (ER) Receptor-Like Kinase, regulating both immunity and stomatal patterning. ER-YDA-mediated immune responses act in parallel to canonical disease resistance pathways regulated by phytohormones and PRRs. CA-YDA plants exhibit altered cell-wall integrity and constitutively express defense-associated genes, including some encoding putative small secreted peptides and PRRs whose impairment resulted in enhanced susceptibility phenotypes. CA-YDA plants show strong reprogramming of their phosphoproteome, which contains protein targets distinct from described MAPKs substrates. Our results suggest that, in addition to stomata development, the ER-YDA pathway regulates an immune surveillance system conferring broad-spectrum disease resistance that is distinct from the canonical pathways mediated by described PRRs and defense hormones.

Mutant Allele-Specific Uncoupling of PENETRATION3 Functions Reveals Engagement of the ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter in Distinct Tryptophan Metabolic Pathways.

Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) penetration (PEN) genes quantitatively contribute to the execution of different forms of plant immunity upon challenge with diverse leaf pathogens. PEN3 encodes a plasma membrane-resident pleiotropic drug resistance-type ATP-binding cassette transporter and is thought to act in a pathogen-inducible and PEN2 myrosinase-dependent metabolic pathway in extracellular defense. This metabolic pathway directs the intracellular biosynthesis and activation of tryptophan-derived indole glucosinolates for subsequent PEN3-mediated efflux across the plasma membrane at pathogen contact sites. However, PEN3 also functions in abiotic stress responses to cadmium and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA)-mediated auxin homeostasis in roots, raising the possibility that PEN3 exports multiple functionally unrelated substrates. Here, we describe the isolation of a pen3 allele, designated pen3-5, that encodes a dysfunctional protein that accumulates in planta like wild-type PEN3. The specific mutation in pen3-5 uncouples PEN3 functions in IBA-stimulated root growth modulation, callose deposition induced with a conserved peptide epitope of bacterial flagellin (flg22), and pathogen-inducible salicylic acid accumulation from PEN3 activity in extracellular defense, indicating the engagement of multiple PEN3 substrates in different PEN3-dependent biological processes. We identified 4-O-ß-D-glucosyl-indol-3-yl formamide (4OGlcI3F) as a pathogen-inducible, tryptophan-derived compound that overaccumulates in pen3 leaf tissue and has biosynthesis that is dependent on an intact PEN2 metabolic pathway. We propose that a precursor of 4OGlcI3F is the PEN3 substrate in extracellular pathogen defense. These precursors, the shared indole core present in IBA and 4OGlcI3F, and allele-specific uncoupling of a subset of PEN3 functions suggest that PEN3 transports distinct indole-type metabolites in distinct biological processes.

Glutathione and tryptophan metabolism are required for Arabidopsis immunity during the hypersensitive response to hemibiotrophs.

The hypersensitive response (HR) is a type of strong immune response found in plants that is accompanied by localized cell death. However, it is unclear how HR can block a broad range of pathogens with different infective modes. In this study, we report that γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase GSH1, which is critical for glutathione biosynthesis, and tryptophan (Trp) metabolism contribute to HR and block development of fungal pathogens with hemibiotrophic infective modes. We found that GSH1 is involved in the penetration2 (PEN2)-based entry control of the nonadapted hemibiotroph Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. However, Arabidopsis mutants specifically defective in entry control terminated further growth of the pathogen in the presence of HR cell death, whereas gsh1 mutants supported pathogen invasive growth in planta, demonstrating the requirement of GSH1 for postinvasive nonhost resistance. Remarkably, on the basis of the phenotypic and metabolic analysis of Arabidopsis mutants defective in Trp metabolism, we showed that biosynthesis of Trp-derived phytochemicals is also essential for resistance to C. gloeosporioides during postinvasive HR. By contrast, GSH1 and these metabolites are likely to be dispensable for the induction of cell death during postinvasive HR. Furthermore, the resistance to Ralstonia solanacearum 1/resistance to Pseudomonas syringae 4 dual Resistance gene-dependent immunity of Arabidopsis to the adapted hemibiotroph shared GSH1 and cytochromes P450 CYP79B2/CYP79B3 with postinvasive nonhost resistance, whereas resistance to P. syringae pv. maculicola 1 and resistance to P. syringae 2-based Resistance gene resistance against bacterial pathogens did not. These data suggest that the synthesis of glutathione and Trp-derived metabolites during HR play crucial roles in terminating the invasive growth of both nonadapted and adapted hemibiotrophs.

Secondary metabolites in plant innate immunity: conserved function of divergent chemicals.

Plant secondary metabolites carry out numerous functions in interactions between plants and a broad range of other organisms. Experimental evidence strongly supports the indispensable contribution of many constitutive and pathogen-inducible phytochemicals to plant innate immunity. Extensive studies on model plant species, particularly Arabidopsis thaliana, have brought significant advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underpinning pathogen-triggered biosynthesis and activation of defensive secondary metabolites. However, despite the proven significance of secondary metabolites in plant response to pathogenic microorganisms, little is known about the precise mechanisms underlying their contribution to plant immunity. This insufficiency concerns information on the dynamics of cellular and subcellular localization of defensive phytochemicals during the encounters with microbial pathogens and precise knowledge on their mode of action. As many secondary metabolites are characterized by their in vitro antimicrobial activity, these compounds were commonly considered to function in plant defense as in planta antibiotics. Strikingly, recent experimental evidence suggests that at least some of these compounds alternatively may be involved in controlling several immune responses that are evolutionarily conserved in the plant kingdom, including callose deposition and programmed cell death.

Phenylnitrene, phenylcarbene, and pyridylcarbenes. Rearrangements to cyanocyclopentadiene and fulvenallene.

Flash vacuum thermolysis (FVT) of phenyl azide 29 as well as precursors of 2-pyridylcarbene 34 and 4-pyridylcarbene 25 affords phenylnitrene 30 (labeled or unlabeled), as revealed by matrix isolation electron spin resonance spectroscopy. FVT of 1-(13)C-phenyl azide 29 affords 1-cyanocyclopentadiene (cpCN) 32, which is exclusively labeled on the CN carbon, thus demonstrating direct ring contraction in phenylnitrene 30 without the intervention of cycloperambulation and 1,3-H shifts. However, the cpCN obtained by rearrangement of pyridyl-2-((13)C-carbene) 34 carries (13)C label on all carbon atoms, including the CN carbon. Calculations at the B3LYP/6-31G* level and in part at the CASSCF/6-31G* and CASPT2/cc-pVDZ//CASSCF(8,8)/cc-pVDZ levels support a new mechanism whereby 2-pyridylcarbene rearranges in part via 1-azacyclohepta-1,2,4,6-tetraene 36 to phenylnitrene, which then undergoes direct ring contraction to cpCN. Another portion of 2-pyridylcarbene undergoes ring expansion to 4-azacyclohepta-1,2,4,6-tetraene 42, which then by trans-annular cyclization affords 6-azabicyclo[3.2.0]cyclohepta-1,3,5-triene 43. Further rearrangement of 43 via the spiroazirine 44 and biradical/vinylnitrene 45 affords cpCN with the label on the CN group. An analogous mechanisms accounts for the labeling pattern in fulvenallene 60 formed by ring contraction of 1-(13)C-phenylcarbene 59 in the FVT of 1-(13)C-phenyldiazomethane 58.

The Arabidopsis Rho of plants GTPase AtROP6 functions in developmental and pathogen response pathways.

How plants coordinate developmental processes and environmental stress responses is a pressing question. Here, we show that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Rho of Plants6 (AtROP6) integrates developmental and pathogen response signaling. AtROP6 expression is induced by auxin and detected in the root meristem, lateral root initials, and leaf hydathodes. Plants expressing a dominant negative AtROP6 (rop6(DN)) under the regulation of its endogenous promoter are small and have multiple inflorescence stems, twisted leaves, deformed leaf epidermis pavement cells, and differentially organized cytoskeleton. Microarray analyses of rop6(DN) plants revealed that major changes in gene expression are associated with constitutive salicylic acid (SA)-mediated defense responses. In agreement, their free and total SA levels resembled those of wild-type plants inoculated with a virulent powdery mildew pathogen. The constitutive SA-associated response in rop6(DN) was suppressed in mutant backgrounds defective in SA signaling (nonexpresser of PR genes1 [npr1]) or biosynthesis (salicylic acid induction deficient2 [sid2]). However, the rop6(DN) npr1 and rop6(DN) sid2 double mutants retained the aberrant developmental phenotypes, indicating that the constitutive SA response can be uncoupled from ROP function(s) in development. rop6(DN) plants exhibited enhanced preinvasive defense responses to a host-adapted virulent powdery mildew fungus but were impaired in preinvasive defenses upon inoculation with a nonadapted powdery mildew. The host-adapted powdery mildew had a reduced reproductive fitness on rop6(DN) plants, which was retained in mutant backgrounds defective in SA biosynthesis or signaling. Our findings indicate that both the morphological aberrations and altered sensitivity to powdery mildews of rop6(DN) plants result from perturbations that are independent from the SA-associated response. These perturbations uncouple SA-dependent defense signaling from disease resistance execution.