Associations Between MAOA-uVNTR Genotype, Maltreatment, MAOA Methylation, and Alcohol Consumption in Young Adult Males.

BACKGROUND: Epigenetic mechanisms are candidate moderators of the effect of maltreatment on brain and behavior. Interactions between maltreatment and the monoamine oxidase A upstream variable number tandem repeat genotype (MAOA-uVNTR) are associated with alcohol-related problems. However, presently it is not known whether DNA methylation moderates this association. The study focused on 53 young adult males and aimed to determine whether MAOA methylation moderated the association of alcohol-related problems with the interaction of MAOA-uVNTR and maltreatment, and whether alcohol consumption moderated the association of MAOA methylation with the interaction of MAOA-uVNTR and maltreatment. METHODS: MAOA-uVNTR genotypes with ≤ 3 and > 3 repeats were categorized as short (S) and long (L), respectively. Data on maltreatment were obtained retrospectively, using self-reported questionnaires. DNA methylation of 16 candidate CpGs within part of the MAOA first exon and intron was assessed and grouped based on principal component analyses. Alcohol-related problems were assessed using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Alcohol consumption was measured using AUDIT-C. Moderation effects were assessed and probed using the moderated moderation model and Johnson-Neyman's method, respectively. RESULTS: Carriers of the S allele, who experienced maltreatment and displayed lower Component 1 (mean of CpGs 13-16 in the first intron) MAOA methylation levels, reported higher AUDIT score in contrast to L-allele carriers. Carriers of the S allele, who reported higher AUDIT-C score and experienced maltreatment, displayed lower Component 3 (mean of CpGs 2-6 in the first exon) MAOA methylation levels than L-allele carriers. CONCLUSIONS: Intronic methylation moderated the association of alcohol-related problems with the interaction of MAOA-uVNTR and maltreatment. Alcohol consumption moderated the association of exonic methylation with the interaction of MAOA-uVNTR and maltreatment. These results suggest that epigenetic factors as well as genotype and maltreatment play a role in the development of alcohol misuse among young adult males.

Good parent-child relationship protects against alcohol use in maltreated adolescent females carrying the MAOA-uVNTR susceptibility allele.

Introduction: Risk-allele carriers of a Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene, short-allele (MAOA-S) in males and long-allele (MAOA-L) in females, in the presence of a negative environment, are associated with alcohol misuse. Whether MAOA-S/L alleles also present susceptibility to a positive environment to mitigate the risk of alcohol misuse is unknown. Thus, we assessed the association of the three-way interaction of MAOA, maltreatment, and positive parent-child relationship with alcohol consumption among adolescents. Methods: This prospective study included 1416 adolescents (females: 59.88%) aged 16 - 19 years from Sweden, enrolled in the "Survey of Adolescent Life in Västmanland" in 2012. Adolescents self-reported alcohol consumption, maltreatment by a family (FM) or non-family member (NFM), parent-child relationship, and left saliva for MAOA genotyping. Results and discussion: We observed sex-dependent results. Females carrying MAOA-L with FM or NFM and a good parent-child relationship reported lower alcohol consumption than those with an average or poor parent-child relationship. In males, the interactions were not significant. Results suggest MAOA-L in females, conventionally regarded as a "risk", is a "plasticity" allele as it is differentially susceptible to negative and positive environments. Results highlight the importance of a good parent-child relationship in mitigating the risk of alcohol misuse in maltreated individuals carrying genetic risk. However, the interactions were not significant after adjusting to several environmental and behavioural covariates, especially parent's alcohol use, negative parent-child relationship, and nicotine use (smoking and/or snus), suggesting predictor and outcome intersection. Future studies and frameworks for preventive strategies should consider these covariates together with alcohol consumption. More studies with larger sample sizes are needed to replicate the findings.

Monoamine oxidase A genotype and methylation moderate the association of maltreatment and aggressive behaviour.

BACKGROUND: The association between childhood maltreatment and subsequent aggressive behaviour is modified by monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) functional polymorphism (MAOA-uVNTR) genotype, MAOA-Long (MAOA-L) in females, MAOA-Short (MAOA-S) in males. Childhood maltreatment is associated with differential DNA methylation in several genes. Consistent with recent proposals, we hypothesized that the association of the interaction of MAOA genotype and maltreatment with aggressive behaviour is further moderated by methylation of a region of interest (ROI) spanning the first exon and partial first intron of MAOA. METHOD: The sample included 117 women and 77 men who completed interviews and questionnaires to report maltreatment and aggressive behaviour towards others and provided saliva samples for DNA extraction. The MAOA-uVNTR polymorphism was genotyped, and methylation of the MAOA ROI was assessed. RESULTS: Following adjustment for substance misuse, psychoactive medication use, and in males tobacco use, the highest levels of aggressive behaviour were found among maltreated male carriers of MAOA-S with high levels of exonic methylation. CONCLUSION: Methylation levels within the MAOA ROI further contributed to the interaction of MAOA risk genotypes and maltreatment on aggressive behaviours among men.

Early life stress and voluntary alcohol consumption in relation to Maoa methylation in male rats.

Early life stress (ELS) or alcohol consumption can influence DNA methylation and affect gene expression. Monoamine oxidase A (Maoa) encodes the enzyme that metabolizes monoaminergic neurotransmitters crucial for the stress response, alcohol reward, and reinforcement. Previously, we reported lower Maoa expression in the nucleus accumbens and dorsal striatum of male rats exposed to ELS during the first three postnatal weeks, and to voluntary alcohol consumption in adulthood, compared with controls. The present study continued to investigate the effect of ELS and alcohol consumption on Maoa methylation, and its relation to Maoa expression in these animals. We selected candidate CpGs after performing next-generation bisulfite sequencing of the Maoa promoter, intron 1-5, and exons 5 and 6, together composed of 107 CpGs (5'-cytosine-phosphate-guanosine-3'), in a subgroup of rats. Pyrosequencing was used to analyze the methylation of 10 candidate CpGs in the promoter and intron 1 in the entire sample. ELS and alcohol displayed an interactive effect on CpG-specific methylation in the dorsal striatum. CpG-specific methylation correlated with Maoa expression, corticosterone levels, and alcohol consumption in a brain region-specific manner. CpG-specific methylation in the Maoa promoter was a potential moderator of the interaction of ELS with alcohol consumption on Maoa expression in the NAc. However, the findings were sparse, did not survive correction for multiple testing, and the magnitude of differences in methylation levels was small. In conclusion, CpG-specific Maoa methylation in the promoter and intron 1 may associate with ELS, alcohol consumption, and Maoa expression in reward-related brain regions.

Evidence for a Link Between Fkbp5/FKBP5, Early Life Social Relations and Alcohol Drinking in Young Adult Rats and Humans.

Alcohol misuse has been linked to dysregulation of stress, emotion, and reward brain circuitries. A candidate key mediator of this association is the FK506-binding protein (FKBP5), a negative regulator of the glucocorticoid receptor. The aim of the present study was to further understand the Fkbp5/FKBP5-related genetic underpinnings underlying the relationship between early life social relations and alcohol drinking. The effect of maternal separation and voluntary alcohol drinking on Fkbp5 expression was investigated in the brain of young adult rats, whereas the interaction effect of the functional FKBP5 single nucleotide polymorphism rs1360780 genotype and parent-child relationship on problematic drinking was examined in young adult humans. In rats, Fkbp5 expression in the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area, core regions of the reward system, was affected in a region-dependent manner and in opposite direction by maternal separation and alcohol drinking. Fkbp5 expression in the cingulate cortex was affected by the combined effect of maternal separation and alcohol drinking. In humans, the TT genotype, in the presence of a poor relationship between the child and parents, was associated with problematic drinking behavior. The present findings suggest that Fkbp5 expression in mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic regions associates with early life stress-mediated sensitivity to alcohol drinking and that FKBP5 genotype interacts with parent-child relationship to influence alcohol drinking. These findings are the first to point to a role of FKBP5 in propensity to alcohol misuse and call for studies of the underlying molecular mechanisms to identify potential drug targets.