Interleukin-21 promotes Type-1 activation and cytotoxicity of CD56dimCD16bright natural killer cells during kidney allograft antibody-mediated rejection showing a new link between adaptive and innate humoral allo-immunity.

The role of Natural killer (NK) cells during kidney allograft antibody-mediated rejection (ABMR) is increasingly recognized, but an in-depth characterization of mechanisms that contribute to such immune response is still under investigation. Here, we characterized phenotypic, functional, and transcriptomic profiles of peripheral blood circulating and allograft infiltrating CD56dimCD16bright NK cells during anti-HLA donor-specific antibody (DSA)+ ABMR. Cross-sectional analyses performed in 71 kidney transplant recipients identified a unique phenotypic circulating CD56dimCD16bright NK cell cluster expanded in DSA+ ABMR. This cluster co-expressed high levels of the interleukin-21 Receptor (IL-21R); Type-1 transcription factors T-bet and EOMES, CD160 and natural killer group 2D cytotoxic and activating co-stimulatory receptors. CD160+ IL-21R+ NK cells correlated with elevated plasma IL-21, Ki-67+ ICOS+ (CD278) IL-21-producing circulating T follicular helper cells, enhanced Type-1 pro-inflammatory cytokines, NK cell cytotoxicity, worse microvascular inflammation and graft loss. Single-cell transcriptomic analysis of circulating NK cells delineated an expanded cluster in DSA+ ABMR characterized by elevated pro-inflammatory/cytotoxic pathways, IL-21/STAT3 signaling, and leukocyte trans-endothelial migration pathways. Infiltration of CD160+ IL-21R+ NK cells with similar transcriptomic profile was detected in DSA+ ABMR allograft biopsies, potentially contributing to allograft injury. Thus, the IL-21/IL-21R axis, linking adaptive and innate humoral allo-immunity, or NK cells may represent appealing immunotherapy targets in DSA+ ABMR.

Impact of donor-specific anti-HLA antibody on cardiac hemodynamics and graft function 3 years after pediatric heart transplantation: First results from the CTOTC-09 multi-institutional study.

The aim of this study (CTOTC-09) was to assess the impact of "preformed" (at transplant) donor-specific anti-HLA antibody (DSA) and first year newly detected DSA (ndDSA) on allograft function at 3 years after pediatric heart transplantation (PHTx). We enrolled children listed at 9 North American centers. The primary end point was pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) at 3 years posttransplant. Of 407 enrolled subjects, 370 achieved PHTx (mean age, 7.7 years; 57% male). Pre-PHTx sensitization status was nonsensitized (n = 163, 44%), sensitized/no DSA (n = 115, 31%), sensitized/DSA (n = 87, 24%), and insufficient DSA data (n = 5, 1%); 131 (35%) subjects developed ndDSA. Subjects with any DSA had comparable PCWP at 3 years to those with no DSA. There were also no significant differences overall between the 2 groups for other invasive hemodynamic measurements, systolic graft function by echocardiography, and serum brain natriuretic peptide concentration. However, in the multivariable analysis, persistent first-year DSA was a risk factor for 3-year abnormal graft function. Graft and patient survival did not differ between groups. In summary, overall, DSA status was not associated with worse allograft function or inferior patient and graft survival at 3 years, but persistent first-year DSA was a risk factor for late graft dysfunction.

Study rationale, design, and pretransplantation alloantibody status: A first report of Clinical Trials in Organ Transplantation in Children-04 (CTOTC-04) in pediatric heart transplantation.

Anti-HLA donor-specific antibodies are associated with worse outcomes after organ transplantation. Among sensitized pediatric heart candidates, requirement for negative donor-specific cytotoxicity crossmatch increases wait times and mortality. However, transplantation with positive crossmatch may increase posttransplantation morbidity and mortality. We address this clinical challenge in a prospective, multicenter, observational cohort study of children listed for heart transplantation (Clinical Trials in Organ Transplantation in Children-04 [CTOTC-04]). Outcomes were compared among sensitized recipients who underwent transplantation with positive crossmatch, nonsensitized recipients, and sensitized recipients without positive crossmatch. Positive crossmatch recipients received antibody removal and augmented immunosuppression, while other recipients received standard immunosuppression with corticosteroid avoidance. This first CTOTC-04 report summarizes study rationale and design and relates pretransplantation sensitization status using solid-phase technology. Risk factors for sensitization were explored. Of 317 screened patients, 290 were enrolled and 240 underwent transplantation. Core laboratory evaluation demonstrated that more than half of patients were anti-HLA sensitized. Greater than 80% of sensitized patients had class I (with or without class II) HLA antibodies, and one-third of sensitized patients had at least 1 HLA antibody with median fluorescence intensity of ≥8000. Logistic regression models demonstrated male sex, weight, congenital heart disease history, prior allograft, and ventricular assist device are independent risk factors for sensitization.

Value of Donor-Specific Anti-HLA Antibody Monitoring and Characterization for Risk Stratification of Kidney Allograft Loss.

The diagnosis system for allograft loss lacks accurate individual risk stratification on the basis of donor-specific anti-HLA antibody (anti-HLA DSA) characterization. We investigated whether systematic monitoring of DSA with extensive characterization increases performance in predicting kidney allograft loss. This prospective study included 851 kidney recipients transplanted between 2008 and 2010 who were systematically screened for DSA at transplant, 1 and 2 years post-transplant, and the time of post-transplant clinical events. We assessed DSA characteristics and performed systematic allograft biopsies at the time of post-transplant serum evaluation. At transplant, 110 (12.9%) patients had DSAs; post-transplant screening identified 186 (21.9%) DSA-positive patients. Post-transplant DSA monitoring improved the prediction of allograft loss when added to a model that included traditional determinants of allograft loss (increase in c statistic from 0.67; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.62 to 0.73 to 0.72; 95% CI, 0.67 to 0.77). Addition of DSA IgG3 positivity or C1q binding capacity increased discrimination performance of the traditional model at transplant and post-transplant. Compared with DSA mean fluorescence intensity, DSA IgG3 positivity and C1q binding capacity adequately reclassified patients at lower or higher risk for allograft loss at transplant (category-free net reclassification index, 1.30; 95% CI, 0.94 to 1.67; P<0.001 and 0.93; 95% CI, 0.49 to 1.36; P<0.001, respectively) and post-transplant (category-free net reclassification index, 1.33; 95% CI, 1.03 to 1.62; P<0.001 and 0.95; 95% CI, 0.62 to 1.28; P<0.001, respectively). Thus, pre- and post-transplant DSA monitoring and characterization may improve individual risk stratification for kidney allograft loss.

IgG Donor-Specific Anti-Human HLA Antibody Subclasses and Kidney Allograft Antibody-Mediated Injury.

Antibodies may have different pathogenicities according to IgG subclass. We investigated the association between IgG subclasses of circulating anti-human HLA antibodies and antibody-mediated kidney allograft injury. Among 635 consecutive kidney transplantations performed between 2008 and 2010, we enrolled 125 patients with donor-specific anti-human HLA antibodies (DSA) detected in the first year post-transplant. We assessed DSA characteristics, including specificity, HLA class specificity, mean fluorescence intensity (MFI), C1q-binding, and IgG subclass, and graft injury phenotype at the time of sera evaluation. Overall, 51 (40.8%) patients had acute antibody-mediated rejection (aABMR), 36 (28.8%) patients had subclinical ABMR (sABMR), and 38 (30.4%) patients were ABMR-free. The MFI of the immunodominant DSA (iDSA, the DSA with the highest MFI level) was 6724±464, and 41.6% of patients had iDSA showing C1q positivity. The distribution of iDSA IgG1-4 subclasses among the population was 75.2%, 44.0%, 28.0%, and 26.4%, respectively. An unsupervised principal component analysis integrating iDSA IgG subclasses revealed aABMR was mainly driven by IgG3 iDSA, whereas sABMR was driven by IgG4 iDSA. IgG3 iDSA was associated with a shorter time to rejection (P<0.001), increased microcirculation injury (P=0.002), and C4d capillary deposition (P<0.001). IgG4 iDSA was associated with later allograft injury with increased allograft glomerulopathy and interstitial fibrosis/tubular atrophy lesions (P<0.001 for all comparisons). Integrating iDSA HLA class specificity, MFI level, C1q-binding status, and IgG subclasses in a Cox survival model revealed IgG3 iDSA and C1q-binding iDSA were strongly and independently associated with allograft failure. These results suggest IgG iDSA subclasses identify distinct phenotypes of kidney allograft antibody-mediated injury.

Immunologic risk stratification of pediatric heart transplant patients by combining HLAMatchmaker and PIRCHE-II.

BACKGROUND: Molecular-level human leukocyte antigen (HLA) mismatch is a powerful biomarker of rejection; however, few studies have explored its use in heart transplant recipients, and none have attempted to use the results of separate algorithms synergistically. Here we tested the hypothesis that a combination of HLAMatchmaker and Predicted Indirectly Recognizable HLA Epitopes (PIRCHE-II) can be used to identify more patients at low risk of rejection. METHODS: We studied 274 recipient/donor pairs enrolled in the Clinical Trials in Organ Transplantation in Children (CTOTC) performing class I and II HLA genotyping by next-generation sequencing to determine eplet mismatch (epMM) load and PIRCHE-II score. Correlation with clinical outcomes was performed on 131 cases. RESULTS: Of the 131 patients, 100 without pre-formed donor specific antibody (DSA) were used to identify cutoffs for the Class I, HLA-DR, and HLA-DQ epMM load and PIRCHE-II score for risk of developing post-transplant DSA (epMM: Class I/DR/DQ = 9/9/6; PIRCHE-II: 141/116/111) and antibody-mediated rejection (ABMR) (epMM: 9/8/8; PIRCHE-II: 157/80/201). Patients with above cut-off epMM load appear to be less likely to develop DSA and ABMR if their PIRCHE-II score is below cut-off (high epMM/high PIRCHE-II: 12.3%-20.3% DSA and 9%-13.5% ABMR vs high epMM/low PIRCHE-II: 4%-10% DSA and 0%-2% ABMR). CONCLUSION: For the first time in a pediatric heart transplant cohort, immunologic risk cut-offs for DSA and ABMR have been established. When used together, epMM load and PIRCHE-II score allow us to reclassify a portion of cases with high epMM load as having a lower risk for developing DSA and ABMR.

Immune response of young children using ATP-based Cylex assay: a brief report.

Data on immune responses of young children using ATP release-based Cylex assay are insufficient. This study measured the immune response of healthy children less than three years of age to mitogens, PHA and Con-A. Blood was obtained from children attending routine health care visits. The Cylex assay was used to measure ATP production by CD4+ and CD3+ cells in response to PHA and Con-A, respectively. Samples from 20 children less than three years (range 10-27 months) were evaluated. The mean ATP production by CD4+ lymphocytes following PHA stimulation was 376 ng/mL (95% CI 17.1-735), which was similar to the response of older children in Hooper et al.'s (Clin Transplant 2005;19:834) study (p-value 0.28). The mean and median ATP production by CD3+ cells following Con-A stimulation were 114 ng/mL and 93.3 ng/mL, respectively (95% CI for median 45.2,148.6). The data suggest that although the immune system of young infants and toddlers is evolving, they are still able to respond to mitogen stimulation similar to older children.

Early outcomes for low-risk pediatric heart transplant recipients and steroid avoidance: A multicenter cohort study (Clinical Trials in Organ Transplantation in Children - CTOTC-04).

BACKGROUND: Immunosuppression strategies have changed over time in pediatric heart transplantation. Thus, comorbidity profiles may have evolved. Clinical Trials in Organ Transplantation in Children-04 is a multicenter, prospective, cohort study assessing the impact of pre-transplant sensitization on outcomes after pediatric heart transplantation. This sub-study reports 1-year outcomes among recipients without pre-transplant donor-specific antibodies (DSAs). METHODS: We recruited consecutive candidates (<21 years) at 8 centers. Sensitization status was determined by a core laboratory. Immunosuppression was standardized as follows: Thymoglobulin induction with tacrolimus and/or mycophenolate mofetil maintenance. Steroids were not used beyond 1 week. Rejection surveillance was by serial biopsy. RESULTS: There were 240 transplants. Subjects for this sub-study (n = 186) were non-sensitized (n = 108) or had no DSAs (n = 78). Median age was 6 years, 48.4% were male, and 38.2% had congenital heart disease. Patient survival was 94.5% (95% confidence interval, 90.1-97.0%). Freedom from any type of rejection was 67.5%. Risk factors for rejection were older age at transplant and presence of non-DSAs pre-transplant. Freedom from infection requiring hospitalization/intravenous anti-microbials was 75.4%. Freedom from rehospitalization was 40.3%. New-onset diabetes mellitus and post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) occurred in 1.6% and 1.1% of subjects, respectively. There was no decline in renal function over the first year. Corticosteroids were used in 14.5% at 1 year. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric heart transplantation recipients without DSAs at transplant and managed with a steroid avoidance regimen have excellent short-term survival and a low risk of first-year diabetes mellitus and PTLD. Rehospitalization remains common. These contemporary observations allow for improved caregiver and/or patient counseling and provide the necessary outcomes data to help design future randomized controlled trials.

Immunogenicity and immunomodulatory effects of amnion-derived multipotent progenitor cells.

This is the first study on the immunologic properties of a clinically relevant population of cells derived from the amnion of human placenta. Unlike other cells from the amnion, these amnion-derived multipotent progenitor cells (AMP cells), from human amnion, grow in serum-free conditions and have never been cultured in the presence of medium containing animal-derived components. This study reports the immunologic characteristics of AMP cells and their roles as immunomodulators. Characterization of AMP cells revealed the presence of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I but the lack of class II antigens and absence of co-stimulatory molecules B7-1 and B7-2. The nonclassical human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-G was expressed at low levels on cultured AMP cells. Expression was significantly increased after interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) treatment. Cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells did not respond to irradiated AMP cells, indicated by lack of proliferation as measured by standard mixed lymphocyte reaction. Culturing AMP cells with IFN-gamma did not reverse this result and did not upregulate class II expression. The AMP cells were shown to have immunomodulatory capabilities by inhibiting peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferative responses to mitogen, alloantigen, and recall antigen, but the AMP cells were unable to inhibit preactivated T-cell blast response to growth factor media. This immunomodulatory effect of AMP cells was found to be dependent on cell-to-cell contact.

Pancreas transplantation under alemtuzumab (Campath-1H) and tacrolimus: Correlation between low T-cell responses and infection.

BACKGROUND: Alemtuzumab induction and tacrolimus-based immunosuppression has been effective in pancreas transplantation. Despite the encouraging results of this minimalistic approach to immunosuppression, infection still remains a significant cause of morbidity. The Cylex ImmuKnow [corrected] assay was used in this study to compare pancreas recipient clinical states (stable, rejection, infection) with T cell responses. METHODS: Blood samples were taken from pancreas recipients pretransplant and at approximately three-month intervals posttransplant for analysis of T cell responses. When possible, T cell responses were also quantified during changes in clinical status (infection or rejection). RESULTS: A range between 100-300 ng/ml adenosine triphosphate (ATP) was found in stable patients (mean 194+/-123, n = 51) with good graft function and no infection or rejection. A low T cell response was highly correlated with infectious states. The fourteen patients with infections/posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease had a mean ATP of 48 ng/ml. Risk hazard analysis showed that patients with ATP levels <100 ng/ml were four to seven times more susceptible to infection compared to stable patients. Four patients with rejection showed a T cell response of 550 ng/ml ATP, which was statistically significant compared to stable patients, although the sampling numbers (9) were too small to be conclusive. CONCLUSION: The Cylex ImmuKnow [corrected] assay is a valuable tool to more precisely modulate immunosuppression in pancreas transplant patients. In particular, the assay is extremely useful in detecting overly immunosuppressed patients vulnerable to infections.

Monitoring immune function during tacrolimus tapering in small bowel transplant recipients.

Long term use of immunosuppressants impacts the cardiovascular system and increases the risk of infection and malignancy. To effectively reduce immunosuppression in a transplant recipient a tool is needed to directly monitor the level of immune function. The Cylex(R) Immune Cell Function Assay, approved by the FDA for the assessment of cell-mediated immunity, shows promise as an objective measure of a transplant recipient's immune function. In a blinded retrospective study, the immune function was compared to clinical courses and histological examinations of biopsies of 20 small bowel transplant recipients during periods of immunosuppressant tapering. Eight patients with no major adverse events or changes of immunosuppressive therapy had moderate to low immune function and were categorized as immunologically and clinically stable. Twelve patients displaying strong immune responses were immunologically and clinically volatile requiring addition of steroids and or OKT3. Results validate the clinical utility of the Cylex Immune Cell Function Assay as an objective tool for assessing immune function. By evaluating immune function, physicians now can identify those patients who are candidates for minimization of immunosuppressant therapy, manage the timing and rate of immunosuppressant weaning and be forewarned of increased patient risk.

Tolerance to incompatible ABO blood group antigens is not observed following homograft implantation.

Failure to develop antibodies to nonself A and B blood group antigens is well described after infant ABO-incompatible heart transplantation and suggests that exposure to incompatible ABO antigens early in life may lead to tolerance rather than immunogenicity. If this finding is also true following ABO-incompatible cryopreserved homograft implantation, then such patients who require transplantation may be able to accept certain ABO-incompatible organs. In this study, we measured anti-A and -B antibody titers (isohemagglutinins) and allosensitization to human leukocyte antigens (HLA) in 21 patients after homograft placement (12 of whom were <1 year of age at initial homograft exposure) in childhood. We also examined homograft explant specimens for endothelial preservation and expression of HLA and A and B blood group antigens. We observed no differences in isohemagglutinins between patients who received ABO-incompatible versus ABO-compatible homografts. Allosensitization to HLA was present in 88% of patients (9 of 9 ABO-incompatible recipients and 5 of 7 ABO-compatible recipients). In 7 homograft explant specimens (median implant duration 10.1 years), the vasa vasorum endothelium was intact with ABO blood group antigen expression on 3 of 5 non-O homografts. These data suggest that tolerance to incompatible A and B blood group antigens does not occur following placement of ABO-incompatible homografts in childhood.

Liver transplant recipients weaned off immunosuppression lack circulating donor-specific antibodies.

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-specific antibodies (Abs) were examined in 73 clinically stable liver transplant recipients divided into group A (n = 19; clinically tolerant), group B (n = 34; undergoing weaning, on minimal immunosuppression), and group C (n = 20; had failed drug withdrawal or weaning never attempted). Of 19 patients in group A, six (32%) had anti-HLA Abs; none were donor-specific. In contrast, 23 of 34 patients (67%) in group B and nine of 20 patients (45%) in group C exhibited anti-HLA Abs (p = 0.02). Furthermore, 15 of 19 patients in groups B and C (9/12, p = 0.01 and 6/7, p = 0.01, respectively) exhibited donor-specific anti-HLA Abs. The prevalence of donor-specific HLA Abs was significantly higher in nontolerant patients. Five years after initial evaluation, >90% (18/19) group A patients remained off immunosuppression. One of seven of these patients available for retesting exhibited donor-specific Abs. In group B, two-fourths of 34 patients (12%) weaned successfully were HLA-Ab negative; four patients who experienced rejection while undergoing weaning exhibited anti-HLA Ab initially and at 5 years. Thus, most of the liver recipients off immunosuppression lacked donor-specific alloAbs. The occurrence of these alloAbs should now be examined prospectively in a drug weaning trial.

Allospecific CD154+ B cells associate with intestine allograft rejection in children.

BACKGROUND: As a significant determinant of T- and B-cell cooperation, CD154 has been used to identify allospecific T-cytotoxic memory cells (TcM) for rejection risk assessment with high sensitivity or specificity but not for alloreactive B-cells, especially among recipients predisposed to acute cellular and humoral rejection, that is, children with intestinal transplantation (ITx). METHODS: Single blood samples from 32 pediatric ITx after lymphocyte depleting induction therapy were obtained within 30 days of protocol biopsies. Samples were assayed for allospecific CD154CD19 B cells and allospecific CD154 TcM in 16-hr live-cell mixed leukocyte reaction using multiparametric flow cytometry. Results were expressed as the immunoreactivity index (IR) or the ratio of donor- to third-party-induced CD154 B cells or TcM. The rejection threshold IR of B cells was determined by logistic regression, leave-one-out cross-validation, and receiver operating characteristic analyses. RESULTS: Biopsy-proven acute cellular rejection was present in 15 subjects (rejectors) and absent in 17 (nonrejectors). In archived serum samples from 16 of 32 subjects donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies (DSA) were assayed by Luminex bead array. DSA were absent in all 7 nonrejectors but present in 7 of 9 rejectors. The IR of allospecific CD154CD19 B cells more than or equal to 1.351 was associated with rejector status and was present in 13 of 15 rejectors (sensitivity 87%) and absent in 15 of 17 nonrejectors (specificity 88%). Excellent correlations were seen between CD154CD19 B cells and CD154 TcM (Spearman ρ=0.647, P=0.0001) but could not be tested independently for DSA, which was highly correlated with rejector status and with CD154 TcM. CONCLUSIONS: Allospecific CD154CD19 B cells identify rejection-prone children with ITx and can likely substitute for T-cell alloreactivity in estimating rejection risk in this rare subject population.

The impact of EBV load on T-cell immunity in pediatric thoracic transplant recipients.

BACKGROUND: Immunologic monitoring of pediatric transplant (Tx) recipients, who are at increased risk of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-driven posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease, is an important goal in clinical transplantation. Here, we investigated the impact of EBV load on T-cell immunity from pediatric Tx recipients, using clinically applicable tests for improved assessment of T-cell immune competence. METHODS: Thirty-five asymptomatic pediatric thoracic Tx patients were categorized into three groups according to their EBV load levels as follows: undetectable viral load (UVL), chronic low viral load (LVL) and chronic high viral load (HVL). Global and EBV-specific T-cell immunity were assessed by ATP release using Cylex Immuknow and T Cell Memory assays. RESULTS: UVL patients exhibited normal ATP release to Concanavalin A (ConA) and phytohemagglutinin (PHA; 190+/-86 ng/mL, 328+/-163 ng/mL) and detectable EBV-specific (37+/-34 ng/mL) ATP responses. LVL patients displayed significantly stronger responses to ConA (373+/-174 ng/mL), PHA (498+/-196 ng/mL) and EBV (152+/-179 ng/mL), when compared with UVL or to HVL patients (ConA 185+/-114 ng/mL, PHA 318+/-173 ng/mL, and EBV 33+/-42 ng/mL). Moreover, HVL patients displayed significant inverse correlation between CD4+ T-cell ATP levels and EBV loads. CONCLUSIONS: Evaluation of global and EBV-specific T-cell immunity provides a rapid assessment of patients' immune competence. It is still unclear whether selective oversuppressed ATP release by CD4+ T cells reflects HVL patients at risk of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease. Further longitudinal studies will determine the importance of Immuknow test in identifying asymptomatic HVL patients vulnerable to EBV complications.

Enhanced donor-specific alloreactivity occurs independently of immunosuppression in children with early liver rejection.

UNLABELLED: To determine whether early acute cellular rejection (ACR) is associated with sub-optimal immunosuppression in children with liver transplants (LTx). METHODS: Twenty-five children with primary LTx after pre-transplant rabbit anti-thymocyte globulin (rATG), and steroid-free tacrolimus (TAC) were evaluated. Mitogen-stimulated T- and B-cell responses and mixed lymphocyte response to donor and third-party antigens were performed at several time points between two consecutive TAC doses. TAC concentrations (C) associated with half-maximal effect (EC(50)) on lymphocytes was determined by pharmacodynamic equations. RESULTS: Mean age was 7.2 +/- 6.2 years, mean time to lymphocyte function studies was 25 +/- 19 days. Acute rejection occurred at a mean interval of 31 +/- 19 days after LTx. Rejectors (n = 16) demonstrated significantly higher EC(50) of TAC for the intra-cellular IFN-gamma in T cells (p = 0.005) and its CD8+ sub-population (p = 0.027) as well as the co-stimulatory/activation receptor CD54 on B cells (p = 0.0001). The response of recipient lymphocytes to donor antigen was significantly higher in rejectors, compared with non-rejectors (p = 0.015). The patient groups demonstrated no differences in third-party MLR, or in C of TAC. CONCLUSIONS: Independent of the amount of immunosuppressant, ACR of liver allografts in children is associated with enhanced donor-specific alloreactivity. This is accompanied by a cytotoxic T-cell sub-population with increased requirement for TAC.

Propagation of activated T lymphocytes from endomyocardial biopsy samples of cardiac allografts: influence of the addition of recombinant interleukin-4 to the culture environment.

In vivo, activated T cells can be propagated from endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) samples of cardiac allografts in cultures containing recombinant interleukin-2 (rIL-2). However, T cells are sometimes not propagated in such cultures, even when rejection is present, and at other times the yield of lymphocytes is too small to allow further studies of these graft-infiltrating cells. The current study investigated the effects of the addition of recombinant interleukin-4 (rIL-4) to the culture environment. Cultures were performed on 532 consecutive EMB samples from 120 adult and pediatric heart transplant recipients. Each sample was divided into multiple fragments. Half of the fragments were cultured in media containing 30 U/mL of rIL-2 and the remaining half were cultured under identical conditions but with the addition of 200 U/mL of rIL-4. After 14 days, cell counts were performed, the cell phenotypes were assessed by flow cytometry, and donor specificity and cytotoxicity were assessed using the primed lymphocyte test (PLT) and cell-mediated lympholysis (CML) assay, respectively. Lymphocyte growth occurred in 18% of grade 0-1a EMB in the presence of rIL-2 and in 29% of grade 0-1a EMB in the presence of rIL-2/rIL-4 (p = 0.02). For higher-grade EMB (equivalent to grade >or=1b), the proportion of positive cultures (approximately 39%) was similar in both conditions. For positive cultures, there was a 5-fold increase in the number of cells in the rIL-2/4 cultures compared to rIL-2 alone (1.6 x 10(6) versus 3.4 x 10(5)). Flow cytometry revealed an increase in the proportion of CD8+ cells in the rIL-2/4 cultures (42% versus 23%, p = 0.004). Proliferative responses to donor antigens (as assessed by using the PLT) were comparable between the two groups, but donor-specific cell-mediated cytotoxicity was enhanced on addition of rIL-4. Hence, addition of rIL-4 enhances the propagation of donor-specific T cells from heart biopsy samples, especially in the presence of minimal rejection. This will provide a greater quantity of material for further studies of graft-infiltrating cells.

Immune cell function testing: an adjunct to therapeutic drug monitoring in transplant patient management.

Each year, 55 000 organ transplants are performed worldwide. Cumulatively, the number of living organ recipients is now estimated to be over 300 000. Most of these transplant recipients will remain on immunosuppressive drugs for the remainder of their lives to prevent rejection episodes. Controlled doses of these drugs are required to prevent over-medication, which may leave the patient susceptible to opportunistic infection and drug toxicity effects, or under-dosing, which may lead to shortened graft survival because of rejection episodes. This paper describes the result of a multicenter study conducted at the Universities of Pittsburgh, Alabama and Maryland to evaluate an in vitro assay (CylexTM Immune Cell Function Assay) for the measurement of global immune response in transplant patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy. The assay uses a whole blood sample to maintain the presence of the drug during incubation. Following overnight incubation of blood with phytohemagglutinin (PHA), CD4 cells are selected using paramagnetic particles coated with a monoclonal antibody to the CD4 epitope. The CD4-positive cells are targeted as major immunosuppressive drugs are designed to specifically inhibit T-cell activation which has been implicated in rejection. The data generated at these three sites were submitted in support of an Food and Drug Association (FDA) application for the use of this assay in the detection of cell-mediated immunity in an immunosuppressed population. The assay was cleared by the FDA on April 2, 2002. This cross-sectional study was designed to establish ranges for reactivity of this bioassay in the assessment of functional immunity for an individual solid organ recipient at any point in time.