Attentional Focus Effects on Lower-Limb Muscular Strength in Athletes: A Systematic Review.

ABSTRACT: Pompa, D, Carson, HJ, Beato, M, di Fronso, S, and Bertollo, M. Attentional focus effects on lower-limb muscular strength in athletes: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 419-434, 2024-Evidence links an athlete's focus of attention to enhancing strength performance. However, additional research is needed to investigate the applicability of studies beyond the tasks and population currently examined. Therefore, we aimed to systematically review studies concerning attentional focus effects on strength characteristics on lower-limb tasks in athletes. Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases were searched using PRISMA PERSIST guidelines and keywords related to the focus of attention, force production processes, and athletes. Subjects were categorized: world class (tier 5); elite (tier 4); highly trained (tier 3); trained/developmental (tier 2); nonathletes (tiers 1-0); and mixed (different levels). Fifteen of 296 studies met the inclusion criteria. Included studies investigated the focus of attention effects on performance ( n = 6), between skill levels ( n = 2), and for learning ( n = 5), with respect to subject preference ( n = 1); one study did not state the aim. Studies achieved an average risk of bias score of "excellent"; however, findings suffered in the assessment of certainty. Only 2 studies reported an advantage for one type of attentional focus (external focus) across conditions ( g = 0.13-0.42) with tier 2 and mixed tier athletes. Research does not address the needs of elite athletes, and there is limited evidence on each type of strength characteristics and muscle action. There is also a need to incorporate methodological steps to promote task-relevant instructions. Research should focus on contextualized information within professional practice to offer stronger translational implications for athletes and coaches.

Manual Therapy Approach to the Extraocular Muscles in Migraine Treatment: A Preliminary Study.

The oculomotor system plays an important role in the development of migraines. This is an observational study that aims to investigate the rehabilitative efficacy of muscle energy therapy (MET) in reducing migraine symptoms. MET was based on post-isometric relaxation and reciprocal inhibition, targeting the extraocular muscles. Patients diagnosed with chronic migraines and positive results in the Smooth Pursuit Eye Movement Test were enrolled in the study. The effects of treatment were assessed using the following questionnaires: Migraine Disability Assessment (MIDAS), Neck Disability Index (NDI), Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Dizziness Handicap Inventory (DHI), and the neck range of motion (ROM). Additionally, rheological parameters of neck muscles were assessed. We reported beneficial effects of MET on the amelioration of the frequency of headaches, neck pain and dizziness-related disabilities and disordered sleep. However, benefits concerning the neck motion and rheological properties of oculomotor structures were unconvincing. In conclusion, the study showed advantageous effects of manual oculomotor therapy consisting of reductions in migraine-related painful symptomatology. The results diminish the role of ocular muscle mechanical properties in the genesis of migraine, shifting attention to the modulatory role of the neuromuscular ocular component, likely involving trigeminal innervation, which can be subject to migraine manual therapy.

Rebooting in sport training and competitions: Athletes' perceived stress levels and the role of interoceptive awareness.

The psychological consequences of the lockdown in the sport context have been well studied. However, few studies investigated athletes' perceived stress during the rebooting in sport training and competitions; moreover, no investigations examined the relationship between perceived stress and interoceptive awareness. To mind this gap and support the enactment of appropriate behaviours for practising sports in a unique situation, we compared athletes' perceived stress data collected during the rebooting in sport activities with normative data and with those collected during the first Italian lockdown. Furthermore, we examined the impact of interoceptive awareness towards positive and negative stress by means of regression analyses. The IPSS-10 and the MAIA questionnaire were administered to 220 athletes. Findings suggest that athletes were experiencing a detrimental situation despite the resumption of sport activities but when comparing rebooting phase with the lockdown, female athletes began to feel greater financial security thereby reducing their perceived stress. Athletes who scored high especially for body trusting - the experience of one's body as safe and trustworthy - could regulate their perceived stress levels by increasing positive and reducing negative stress. Athletes could engage in mindful activities related to the body to reduce their perceived stress levels and better deal with an unprecedented situation.

Me-Doped Ti-Me Intermetallic Thin Films Used for Dry Biopotential Electrodes: A Comparative Case Study.

In a new era for digital health, dry electrodes for biopotential measurement enable the monitoring of essential vital functions outside of specialized healthcare centers. In this paper, a new type of nanostructured titanium-based thin film is proposed, revealing improved biopotential sensing performance and overcoming several of the limitations of conventional gel-based electrodes such as reusability, durability, biocompatibility, and comfort. The thin films were deposited on stainless steel (SS) discs and polyurethane (PU) substrates to be used as dry electrodes, for non-invasive monitoring of body surface biopotentials. Four different Ti-Me (Me = Al, Cu, Ag, or Au) metallic binary systems were prepared by magnetron sputtering. The morphology of the resulting Ti-Me systems was found to be dependent on the chemical composition of the films, specifically on the type and amount of Me. The existence of crystalline intermetallic phases or glassy amorphous structures also revealed a strong influence on the morphological features developed by the different systems. The electrodes were tested in an in-vivo study on 20 volunteers during sports activity, allowing study of the application-specific characteristics of the dry electrodes, based on Ti-Me intermetallic thin films, and evaluation of the impact of the electrode-skin impedance on biopotential sensing. The electrode-skin impedance results support the reusability and the high degree of reliability of the Ti-Me dry electrodes. The Ti-Al films revealed the least performance as biopotential electrodes, while the Ti-Au system provided excellent results very close to the Ag/AgCl reference electrodes.

The Effect of an Integrated Neurofeedback and Biofeedback Training Intervention on Ice Hockey Shooting Performance.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) neurofeedback training (NFT) and biofeedback training (BFT) intervention on ice hockey shooting performance. Specifically, the purpose was to examine (a) whether an NFT/BFT program could improve ice hockey shooting performance, (b) whether the implementation of an SMR-NFT intervention leads to neurological adaptations during performance, and (c) whether such neurological changes account for improvement in shooting performance. Using a longitudinal stratified random control design, results demonstrated that while both SMR-NFT/BFT and control groups improved performance, the rate of improvement for the SMR-NFT/BFT group was significantly higher than the control. Participants in the SMR-NFT/BFT group demonstrated the ability to significantly increase SMR power from pre- to postintervention in the lab. However, no significant changes in SMR power were found during shooting performance. This result may be suggestive of differing cortical activity present during motor-skill preparation.

Reliability of Heart Rate Variability in Children: Influence of Sex and Body Position During Data Collection.

PURPOSE: To examine which body position and indices present better reliability of heart rate variability (HRV) measures in children and to compare the HRV analyzed in different body positions between sexes. METHOD: Twenty eutrophic prepubertal children of each sex participated in the study. The RR intervals were recorded using a portable heart rate monitor twice a day for 7 min in the supine, sitting, and standing positions. The reproducibility was analyzed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC; two way mixed) and within-subject coefficient of variation (CV).Two-way ANOVA with repeated measures was used to compare the sexes. RESULTS: High levels of reproducibility were indicated by higher ICC in the root-mean-square difference of successive normal RR intervals (RMSSD: 0.93 and 0.94) and Poincaré plot of the short-term RR interval variability (SD1: 0.92 and 0.94) parameters for boys and girls, respectively, in the supine position. The ICCs were lower in the sitting and standing positions for all HRV indices. In addition, the girls presented significantly higher values than the boys for SDNN and absolute high frequency (HF; p < .05) in the supine position. CONCLUSIONS: The supine position is the most reproducible for the HRV indices in both sexes, especially the vagal related indices.

Shared mental models and intra-team psychophysiological patterns: a test of the juggling paradigm.

We explored implicit coordination mechanisms underlying the conceptual notion of "shared mental models" (SMM) through physiological (i.e., breathing and heart rates) and affective-cognitive (i.e., arousal, pleasantness, attention, self-efficacy, other's efficacy) monitoring of two professional jugglers performing a real-time interactive task of increasing difficulty. There were two experimental conditions: "individual" (i.e., solo task) and "interactive" (i.e., two jugglers established a cooperative interaction by juggling sets of balls with each other). In both conditions, there were two task difficulties: "easy" and "hard." Descriptive analyses revealed that engaging in a dyadic cooperative motor task (interactive condition) required greater physiological effort (Median Cohen's d = 2.13) than performing a solo motor task (individual condition) of similar difficulty. Our results indicated a strong positive correlation between the jugglers' heart rate for the easy (r = .87) and hard tasks (r = .77). The relationship between the jugglers' breathing rate was significant for the easy task (r = .73) but non-significant for the hard task. The findings are interpreted based on research on SMM and Theory of Mind. Practitioners should advance the notion of "shared-regulation" in the context of team coordination through the use of biofeedback training.

Heart Rate Variability Discriminates Competitive Levels in Professional Soccer Players.

Heart rate variability (HRV) has been increasingly used to monitor team sports athletes. Besides the traditional time domain indices (i.e., the SD of successive RR intervals [SDNN] and the root mean square difference of successive normal RR intervals [RMSSD]), recently the use of the stress score (SS), which is an inverse function of the SD2 index derived from the Poincaré plot, and the sympathetic/parasympathetic ratio (S/PS) to monitor soccer players has been proposed. However, the reliability of these new indices and the ability of HRV to differentiate between soccer competitive levels are unknown. The aim of this study was to analyze the reliability of the different HRV-derived indices in professional soccer players during the competitive period and to compare HRV of professional soccer players from 3 teams of distinct competitive levels (i.e., Italian Second Division [2D], European League [EL], and Champions League [CL]). Fifty-four male professional soccer players from 3 different teams of 2 European countries (Italy and Germany) participated in the study. The intraclass correlation coefficient values of the HRV indices varied from 0.78 (very large) to 0.90 (near perfect). The coefficient of variation (CV) values for RMSSD and SDNN were all <5.00%, although the CV for SS was 6.13% and for S/PS, it was 21.33%. Both the CL and EL groups, assumed to be internationally qualified, presented higher lnRMSSD and lnSDNN and lower lnSS and S/PS than the 2D. Therefore, the HRV can be considered reliable in professional soccer players and is able to differentiate between international- and national-level players.

Monitoring weekly heart rate variability in futsal players during the preseason: the importance of maintaining high vagal activity.

This study aimed to compare the weekly natural log of the root-mean-square difference of successive normal inter-beat (RR) intervals (ln RMSSDWeekly) and its coefficient of variation (ln RMSSDCV) in response to 5 weeks of preseason training in professional male futsal players. A secondary aim was to assess the relationship between ln RMSSDWeekly and ln RMSSDCV. The ln RMSSD is a measure of cardiac-vagal activity, and ln RMSSDCV represents the perturbations of cardiac autonomic homeostasis, which may be useful for assessing how athletes are coping with training. Ten futsal players had their resting ln RMSSD recorded prior to the first daily training session on four out of approximately five regular training days · week-1. Session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) was quantified for all training sessions. Despite weekly sRPE varying between 3455 ± 300 and 5243 ± 463 arbitrary units (a.u.), the group changes in ln RMSSDWeekly were rated as unclear (using magnitude-based inference), although large inter-individual variability in ln RMSSD responses was observed. The ln RMSSDCV in weeks 4 and 5 were likely lower than the previous weeks. A large and significant negative correlation (r = -0.53; CI 90%: -0.36; -0.67) was found between ln RMSSD and ln RMSSDCV. Therefore, monitoring individual ln RMSSD responses is suggested since large inter-individual variations may exist in response to futsal training. In addition, higher values of ln RMSSD are associated with lower oscillations of cardiac autonomic activity.

Neural Markers of Performance States in an Olympic Athlete: An EEG Case Study in Air-Pistol Shooting.

This study focused on identifying the neural markers underlying optimal and suboptimal performance experiences of an elite air-pistol shooter, based on the tenets of the multi-action plan (MAP) model. According to the MAP model's assumptions, skilled athletes' cortical patterns are expected to differ among optimal/automatic (Type 1), optimal/controlled (Type 2), suboptimal/controlled (Type 3), and suboptimal/automatic (Type 4) performance experiences. We collected performance (target pistol shots), cognitive-affective (perceived control, accuracy, and hedonic tone), and cortical activity data (32-channel EEG) of an elite shooter. Idiosyncratic descriptive analyses revealed differences in perceived accuracy in regard to optimal and suboptimal performance states. Event-Related Desynchronization/Synchronization analysis supported the notion that optimal-automatic performance experiences (Type 1) were characterized by a global synchronization of cortical arousal associated with the shooting task, whereas suboptimal controlled states (Type 3) were underpinned by high cortical activity levels in the attentional brain network. Results are addressed in light of the neural efficiency hypothesis and reinvestment theory. Perceptual training recommendations aimed at restoring optimal performance levels are discussed. Key pointsWe investigated the neural markers underlying optimal and suboptimal performance experiences of an elite air-pistol shooter.Optimal/automatic performance is characterized by a global synchronization of cortical activity associated with the shooting task.Suboptimal controlled performance is characterized by high cortical arousal levels in the attentional brain networks.Focused Event Related Desynchronization activity during Type 1 performance in frontal midline theta was found, with a clear distribution of Event Related Synchronization in the frontal and central areas just prior to shot release.Event Related Desynchronization patterns in low Alpha band for Type 3 performance suggest that higher levels of general cortical arousal are associated with suboptimal-controlled performance states.

My heart is racing! Psychophysiological dynamics of skilled racecar drivers.

Our purpose was to test the multi-action plan model assumptions in which athletes' psychophysiological patterns differ among optimal and suboptimal performance experiences. Nine professional drivers competing in premier race categories (e.g. Formula 3, Porsche GT3 Cup Challenge) completed the study. Data collection involved monitoring the drivers' perceived hedonic tone, accuracy on core components of action, posture, skin temperature, respiration rate and heart rate responses during a 40-lap simulated race. Time marks, gathered at three standardised sectors, served as the performance variable. The A1GP racing simulator (Allinsport, Modena) established a realistic race platform. Specifically, the Barcelona track was chosen because of its inherently difficult nature characterised by intermittent deceleration points. Idiosyncratic analyses showed large individual differences in the drivers' psychophysiological profile, as well as distinct patterns in regards to optimal and suboptimal performance experiences. Limitations and future research avenues are discussed. Action- (e.g. attentional control) and emotion (e.g. biofeedback training)-centred applied sport psychology implications are advanced.

Do psychobiosocial states mediate the relationship between perceived motivational climate and individual motivation in youngsters?

Grounded in achievement goal theory and self-determination theory, this cross-sectional study examined the relationship between perceived motivational climate and individuals' motivation as well as the mediation effect of psychobiosocial states as conceptualised within the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model. Young students (N = 167, age range 14-15 years) taking part in physical education classes completed measures of teacher-initiated motivational climate, task and ego orientation, motivation and psychobiosocial states. Simple and serial mediation analyses indicated that a perceived mastery climate and individuals' task orientation were related to intrinsic motivation and identified regulation through the mediation of pleasant/functional psychobiosocial states. In contrast, a perceived performance climate was related to external regulation and amotivation through the mediation of unpleasant/dysfunctional psychobiosocial states. Regression analysis results also showed that discrete psychobiosocial states accounted for a significant proportion of variance in motivational variables. Taken together, findings highlight the role of psychobiosocial states as mediators of the relationship between motivational climate and an individual's motivation, and suggest that educators should consider a wide range of individual's functional and dysfunctional reactions deriving from their instructional activity.

Exploring characteristics of and transitions between mental states within the Multi-Action Plan model in high-level judo.

The Multi-Action Plan (MAP) model presents an idiosyncratic framework for human performance. MAP research has categorised four Performance Types (PTs; T1-T4) using self-paced activities. Specifically, T1-4 present four distinct mental states experienced by athletes during performance, differing, among other aspects, in the level of effort and perceived control. However, transitions between PTs are yet to be empirically investigated. This study aimed to examine MAP in the hyperdynamic open-skill combat context of judo. We explored how judoka experienced PTs and the transition processes between these mental states. Six British, high-level judoka (n = 6; Mdnage = 19) were interviewed using a retrospective semi-structured interview schedule. Interpretative phenomenological analysis indicated that judo presents a hyperdynamic difficult-to-predict performance context due to the opponent and fighting rhythm. Second, participants strongly related to T2 and T3 and less to T1 and T4. They also reported experiences 'between' T2 and T3. Lastly, participants reported common transition pathways (e.g., T2-T3), typical transition cues, and specific trainable strategies to optimise performance. Findings are discussed in relation to existing literature. Lastly, we present limitations, applied, and research considerations.

Investigating in-performance transitions between mental states in high-level judoka using video-based stimulated recall.

The Multi-Action Plan model offers an idiosyncratic, sport-specific, and applied framework categorising two peak (Type 1 & 2) and two non-peak performance types (Type 3 & 4). The purpose of the present study was to examine the transitions between these Performance Types across three competition-simulating training judo fights. After videoing three judo fights per participant, we interviewed six high-level judo practitioners (Mdage = 19 years) using video-stimulated recall. While watching their fights, participants indicated which Performance Types they experienced during each fight and, subsequently, discussed their experience with the lead researcher. Findings indicated that participants spent most time in effortful mental states (Type 2 & 3). Additionally, they identified currently not defined states 'between' current typologies, e.g., T2.5. Overall, participants reported more down- than upregulations. Specifically, they described downregulations as mostly uncontrolled and related to fatigue, technical-tactical, or cognitive-emotional transition cues. In contrast, they characterised upregulations as deliberate and proactive mental resets, utilising strategies such as self-talk. Lastly, we discussed our findings in relation to existing literature and offered implications for research and practice.

Dreaming while awake: The beneficial effects of yoga Nidra on mental and physical recovery in two elite karate athletes.

Yoga Nidra (YN) naturally stimulates a hypnagogic state wherein an individual is physiologically asleep yet maintains a certain awareness to follow a guide's instructions. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of this aware sleep state on recovery-stress balance in two elite karate athletes adopting an idiosyncratic and multimodal approach. One male and one female athlete underwent a YN intervention. Before intervention, after intervention and three weeks later, recovery-stress balance specific scales, perceived stress, cognitive and somatic anxiety, subjective and objective sleep quality, and individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF) values were assessed. Perceived quality of recovery was continuously monitored for three months including the period of the investigation. Feelings and arousal levels before and after each YN session were also examined. Our results showed a YN general positive effect; however, the intervention had higher sport specific effects in the male compared to the female athlete. On the other hand, in the female athlete, YN seems to have effects both from an emotional and physical point of view. We also noted the intertwined relationship among interoception, perceived stress and YN effects. Also, findings suggest that iAPF modulation reflected improved recovery skills or a better control of stressful situations, while the acute effects on arousal levels were expression of anxiety or energy reduction. Overall, YN improved both the perceived quality of recovery and sleep quality, shedding light on the importance of YN for recovery-stress balance enhancement in the sport context.

Modulatory role of sport factors on amateur and competitive athletes' aggressive and antisocial behaviors.

Aggressiveness and unethical behaviors are an important problem in sports today. Understanding how to properly measure and manage an athlete's aggressive tendency is a crucial lesson to be learned within the rulesets of a sporting environment. This study aims at validating the Italian version of the Competitive Aggressiveness and Anger Scale (CAAS), specifically developed to measure aggressiveness and anger in athletes. The second aim is to investigate how aggressive and antisocial behaviors are modulated by sex, competitive level (i.e., amateur and competitive), sport contact (i.e., contact and no-contact), and sport type (i.e., team and individual). Two hundred and ninety-six athletes (mean age = 22.42 years, SD = 2.86) were asked to fill out a survey about sociodemographic variables, sport specific data, attitudes to moral decisions, past cheating behavior, and aggression. The Italian version of the CAAS presented a good fit of the data, adequate internal consistency and its construct validity was supported via convergent and discriminant validity. Both aggressiveness and anger dimensions of CAAS positively related with acceptance of cheating and gamesmanship, and past cheating behavior, while only the aggressiveness dimension of the CAAS negatively related with prosocial attitude. Competitive male athletes practicing contact sport showed the highest levels of aggressiveness, while competitive athletes practicing team sport showed the highest level of anger. This study represents the first empirical construct validity evidence of CAAS among Italian athletes and provides a deeper understanding of how athletes' aggressive tendencies and antisocial behavior differ across athlete populations.

The effects of pre-task music on choice visual reaction time in elite taekwondo athletes.

OBJECTIVES: The effects of music on sport performance mainly involved endurance or resistance exercises overlooking possible effects on reaction time, which is deemed essential in martial arts for a proficient performance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the exposure to pre-task music on choice visual reaction time in elite taekwondo athletes. DESIGN: Repeated measure study design. METHODS: Reaction time and mean Heart Rate (HRmean) were recorded in twenty young taekwondo athletes (17.5 ±â€¯2.5 years old) while performing a roundhouse kick in response to different visual stimuli after three warmup conditions: listening to self-selected music (SM), research-selected music (RM) or no music (CC). Moreover, Feeling Scale (FS), Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) were recorded before (T0) and after warmup (T1) in each testing session. RESULTS: SM and RM elicited significantly faster reaction times compared to CC (-3.3 % and -5.2 %, respectively). No significant difference in reaction time was observed between SM and RM. The FS and FAS scores were significantly higher at T1 compared to T0 in the SM and RM conditions, whereas no difference between T0 and T1 was observed in the CC condition. No difference was observed for HRmean between SM, RM and CC conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Listening to SM and RM during the warmup improved choice visual reaction times in elite taekwondo athletes. These results suggest the use of music as a performance-enhancing strategy prior to combat competition or training in martial arts.

Social and Emotional Skills in at-Risk Adolescents through Participation in Sports.

(1) Background: Adolescents who are under the care of child and youth institutions are vulnerable due to factors that can include disruption to family structure or education and adverse experiences. They often experience poor or unstable support systems, leaving them at risk of delinquency. In this context, sports engagement may provide a stable structure and have positive effects in this population. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions, knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors regarding social and emotional skills among at-risk adolescents, with a specific focus on their engagement in sports. (2) Methods: Ninety-six adolescents aged 12 to 17 years (66 female, 30 male), residing in child and youth care institutions across Italy, Portugal, the UK, and Turkey, participated in this study. The participants were divided into 14 focus groups, each with six to eight participants of similar ages. (3) Results: Thematic analysis revealed four main themes: Emotional causes of behavioral problems; Emotional skills to regain control; Social support makes sports worthwhile; Sport as a socio-emotional resource. (4) Conclusions: The study findings highlight that although sports create many challenging emotional situations for these adolescents, they also provides resources that may help them cope with their emotions within and beyond sports.

Psychophysiological strategies for enhancing performance through imagery-skin conductance level analysis in guided vs. self-produced imagery.

Athletes need to achieve their optimal level of arousal for peak performance. Visualization or mental rehearsal (i.e., Imagery) often helps to obtain an appropriate level of activation, which can be detected by monitoring Skin Conductance Level (SCL). However, different types of imagery could elicit different amount of physiological arousal. Therefore, this study aims: (1) to investigate differences in SCL associated with two instructional modalities of imagery (guided vs. self-produced) and six different scripts; (2) to check if SCL could differentiate respondents according to their sport expertise. Thirty participants, aged between 14 and 42 years (M = 22.93; SD = 5.24), with different sport levels took part in the study. Participants listened to each previously recorded script and then were asked to imagine the scene for a minute. During the task, SCL was monitored. We analysed the mean value, variance, slope and number of fluctuations per minute of the electrodermal signal. Unsupervised machine learning models were used for measuring the resemblance of the signal. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for distinguishing guided and self-produced imagery, and The Mann-Whitney U test was used for distinguishing results of different level athletes. We discovered that among others, self-produced imagery generates lower SCL, higher variance, and a higher number of fluctuations compared to guided imagery. Moreover, we found similarities of the SCL signal among the groups of athletes (i.e. expertise level). From a practical point of view, our findings suggest that different imagery instructional modalities can be implemented for specific purposes of mental preparation.

Pubertal development, physical self-perception, and motivation toward physical activity in girls.

We examined the differences in physical self-perception and motivation toward physical activity in early- and mid-adolescent girls. Body Mass Index (BMI) and pubertal status, assessed by means of the Tanner scale, were collected in 11-year-old (n=74) and 13-year-old girls (n=60). The assessment included six scales from the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire, the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale, and the Situational Intrinsic Motivation Scale. Age differences emerged, with older girls showing a poorer physical perception and lower scores in intrinsic motivation and enjoyment of physical activity. In the subsample of 11-year-olds, findings showed that more developed girls reported a poorer physical perception on the scales of body fat, global physical self-concept, and appearance, and a lower score in the PACES positive scale. Results underscore the need to promote interventions aimed at encouraging active lifestyles among children and adolescent girls, in order to prevent overweight prior to pubertal onset.