Revisiting the link between the sustained attention to response task (SART) and daily-life cognitive failures.

In this study, we examined the relationship betweenerrors of commissionon theSustained Attention to Response Task(SART)andscores on the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ). The goal was to assess theecological validity of the SARTin a sample of people scoring high on fatigue complaints.SART errors of commission were positively associated with CFQ scores and this finding remained after controlling for fatigue level, age, and SART reaction times.Thus, our results generally supported the ecological validity of the SART. However, when examining subsamples separately, we found the association between SART and CFQ only in our subsample of employees, not in our subsample of university students. The three subscales of the CFQ showed the same pattern of findings. Our results imply that, when using the SART to draw conclusions about everyday life, it is crucial to consider the characteristics of one's sample and control for relevant confounding variables.

Temporal dynamics of sitting behavior at work.

Sitting for prolonged periods of time impairs people's health. Prior research has mainly investigated sitting behavior on an aggregate level, for example, by analyzing total sitting time per day. By contrast, taking a dynamic approach, here we conceptualize sitting behavior as a continuous chain of sit-to-stand and stand-to-sit transitions. We use multilevel time-to-event analysis to analyze the timing of these transitions. We analyze ∼30,000 objectively measured posture transitions from 156 people during work time. Results indicate that the temporal dynamics of sit-to-stand transitions differ from stand-to-sit transitions, and that people are quicker to switch postures later in the workday, and quicker to stand up after having been more active in the recent hours. We found no evidence for associations with physical fitness. Altogether, these findings provide insights into the origins of people's stand-up and sit-down decisions, show that sitting behavior is fundamentally different from exercise behavior, and provide pointers for the development of interventions.

Sitting patterns in cardiovascular disease patients compared with healthy controls and impact of cardiac rehabilitation.

PURPOSE: To identify how and when to intervene in cardiovascular disease (CVD) patients' sedentary behavior, we moved beyond studying total volume of sitting and examined sitting patterns. By analyzing the timing of stand-to-sit and sit-to-stand transitions, we compared sitting patterns (a) between CVD patients and healthy controls, and (b) before and after cardiac rehabilitation (CR). METHODS: One hundered twenty nine CVD patients and 117 age-matched healthy controls continuously wore a tri-axial thigh-worn accelerometer for 8 days (>120 000 posture transitions). CVD patients additionally wore the accelerometer directly and 2 months after CR. RESULTS: With later time of the day, both CVD patients and healthy controls sat down sooner (i.e., shorter standing episode before sitting down; HR = 1.01, 95% CI [1.011, 1.015]) and remained seated longer (HR = 0.97, CI [0.966, 0.970]). After more previous physical activity, both groups sat down later (HR = 0.97, CI [0.959, 0.977]), and patients remained seated longer (HR = 0.96; CI [0.950, 0.974]). Immediately and 2-months following CR, patients sat down later (HRpost-CR  = 0.96, CI [0.945, 0.974]; HRfollow-up  = 0.96, CI [0.948, 0.977]) and stood up sooner (HRpost-CR  = 1.04, CI [1.020, 1.051]; HRfollow-up  = 1.03, CI [1.018, 1.050]). These effects were less pronounced with older age, higher BMI, lower sedentary behavior levels, and/or higher physical activity levels at baseline. CONCLUSION: Cardiac rehabilitation programs could be optimized by targeting CVD patients' sit-to-stand transitions, by focusing on high-risk moments for prolonged sitting (i.e., in evenings and after higher-than-usual physical activity) and attending to the needs of specific patient subgroups.

Mind wandering increases linearly with text difficulty.

Although mind wandering during reading is known to be affected by text difficulty, the nature of this relationship is not yet fully understood. To examine this issue, we conducted an experiment in which participants read non-fiction texts that varied along five levels of difficulty under naturalistic conditions. Difficulty levels were determined based on Flesch-Kincaid Grade Levels and verified with Coh-Metrix indices. Mind wandering was measured with thought probes. We predicted that text difficulty and mind wandering have a U-shaped (i.e., quadratic) relationship. Contrary to our expectations, but in line with some prior studies, mind wandering linearly increased with text difficulty. Additionally, text interest moderated the effect of text difficulty on mind wandering. Finally, mind wandering was associated with worse performance on a comprehension test. Together, our findings extend previous work by showing that (a) a linear relationship between difficulty and mind wandering exists during common page-by-page reading of pre-existing texts and that (b) this relationship holds across a broad range of difficulty levels.

Personality in anaesthesiologists, a systematic review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: As a central part of their job, anaesthesiologists often have to perform demanding tasks under high-stakes conditions. Yet, some anaesthesiologists seem better able to deal with the demands of the profession than others. OBJECTIVES: This review aims to answer the following questions. What are the necessary or desirable qualities of an anaesthesiologist? Which personality traits or characteristics have been found in anaesthesiologists? How does personality relate to job performance and work stress among anaesthesiologists? DESIGN: Systematic review of studies that examined anaesthesiologists' personality or personality characteristics. We performed our synthesis in terms of the five-factor model of personality. DATA SOURCES: The search was conducted in the PubMed, EMBASE and Web of Science databases. Literature was included until December 2020. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: We included qualitative and quantitative studies that examined anaesthesiologists' personality; also, we included studies that focused on anaesthesiologists' stress, performance or mental health but only if these topics were examined from the perspective of personality. RESULTS: We included 6 qualitative and 25 quantitative articles. Synthesis of the qualitative articles revealed two classes of desirable technical and nontechnical personality characteristics. Synthesis of the quantitative articles suggested that anaesthesiologists do not essentially differ from other medical specialists. Moreover, our synthesis revealed several personality traits that predict good performance, low stress and good mental health among anaesthesiologists: lower Neuroticism, higher Extraversion, higher Openness and higher Conscientiousness. CONCLUSION: Those personality traits that predict performance, stress or mental health in anaesthesiologists, also predict performance, stress or mental health in other high demand/high stakes environments (both medical and nonmedical). The ideal anaesthesiologist would be lower on Neuroticism, higher on Extraversion and higher on Conscientiousness.

Chronic stress indicated by hair cortisol concentration in anaesthesiologists and its relationship to work experience and emotional intelligence: A cross-sectional biomarker and survey study.

BACKGROUND: Anaesthesia is a stressful medical specialty. The reaction to stress is constituted by behavioural, psychological and physiological components. Chronic physiological stress can have negative consequences for health. OBJECTIVES: First, we hypothesised that chronic physiological stress is higher for both beginning and late-career consultant anaesthesiologists. Second, we hypothesised that individuals high in emotional intelligence endure lower physiological stress. DESIGN: Cross-sectional biomarker and survey study. SETTING: Participants were recruited during the May 2019 annual meeting of the Dutch Anaesthesia Society. PARTICIPANTS: Of the 1348 colleagues who attended the meeting, 184 (70 male/114 female) participated in the study. Of the study participants, 123 (67%) were consultant anaesthesiologists (52 male/71 female) and 61 (33%) were resident anaesthesiologists (18 male/43 female). Exclusion criteria were endocrine disorders and not having enough hair. Also, experience of a recent major life event led to exclusion from analysis of our hypotheses. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Chronic physiological stress was measured by hair cortisol concentration. Emotional intelligence was assessed using a validated Dutch version of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire. As secondary measures, psychological sources of stress were assessed using validated Dutch versions of the home-work interference (SWING) and the effort-reward imbalance questionnaires. RESULTS: In support of Hypothesis 1, hair cortisol concentration was highest among early and late-career consultant anaesthesiologists (quadratic effect: b = 45.5, SE = 16.1, t = 2.8, P = 0.006, R2 = 0.14). This nonlinear pattern was not mirrored by self-reported sources of psychological stress. Our results did not support Hypothesis 2; we found no evidence for a relationship between emotional intelligence and physiological stress. CONCLUSION: In the early and later phases of an anaesthesiologist's career, physiological chronic stress is higher than in the middle of the career. However, this physiological response could not be explained from known sources of psychological stress. We discuss these findings against the background of key differences between physiological and psychological stress.

Explore or reset? Pupil diameter transiently increases in self-chosen switches between cognitive labor and leisure in either direction.

When people invest effort in cognitive work, they often keep an eye open for rewarding alternative activities. Previous research suggests that the norepinephrine (NE) system regulates such trade-offs between exploitation of the current task and exploration of alternative possibilities. We examined the possibility that the NE system is involved in another trade-off, i.e., the trade-off between cognitive labor and leisure. We conducted two pre-registered studies (total N = 62) in which participants freely chose to perform either a paid 2-back task (labor) versus a non-paid task (leisure), while we tracked their pupil diameter-which is an indicator of the state of the NE system. In both studies, consistent with prior work, we found (a) increases in pupil baseline and (b) decreases in pupil dilation when participants switched from labor to leisure. Unexpectedly, we found the same pattern when participants switched from leisure back to labor. Both increases in pupil baseline and decreases in pupil dilation were short-lived. Collectively, these results are more consistent with a role of norepinephrine in reorienting attention and task switching, as suggested by network reset theory, than with a role in motivation, as suggested by adaptive gain theory.

The feeling of effort during mental activity.

The feeling of effort is familiar to most, if not all, humans. Prior research shows that the feeling of effort shapes judgments (e.g., of agency) and decisions (e.g., to quit the current task) in various ways, but the proximal causes of the feeling of effort are not well understood. In this research, I address these proximal causes. In particular, I conducted two preregistered experiments in which participants performed a difficult vs. easy cognitive task, while I measured effort-related phenomenology (feeling of effort) and physiology (pupil dilation) on a moment-to-moment basis. In both experiments, difficult tasks increased the feeling of effort; however, this effect could not be explained by concurrent increases in physiological effort. To explain these findings, I suggest that the feeling of effort during mental activity stems from the decision to exert physiological effort, rather than from physiological effort itself.

The implicit power motive predicts action selection.

Previous research has indicated that implicit motives can reliably predict which behaviors people select or decide to perform. However, so far, the question of how these motives are able to predict this action selection process has received little attention. Based on ideomotor theory, we argue that implicit motives can predict action selection when an action has become associated with a motive-congruent (dis)incentive through repeated experiences with the action-outcome relationship. This idea was investigated by examining whether the implicit need for power (nPower) would come to predict action selection (i.e., choosing to press either of two buttons) when these actions had repeatedly resulted in motive-congruent (dis)incentives (i.e., submissive or dominant faces). Both Studies 1 and 2 indicated that participants became more likely to select the action predictive of the motive-congruent outcome as their history with the action-outcome relationship increased. Study 2 indicated that this effect stemmed from both an approach towards incentives and an avoidance of disincentives. These results indicate that implicit motives (particularly the power motive) can predict action selection as a result of learning which actions yield motive-congruent (dis)incentives. Our findings therefore offer a model of how implicit motives can come to predict which behaviors people select to perform.

Performance pressure and caffeine both affect cognitive performance, but likely through independent mechanisms.

A prevalent combination in daily life, performance pressure and caffeine intake have both been shown to impact people's cognitive performance. Here, we examined the possibility that pressure and caffeine affect cognitive performance via a shared pathway. In an experiment, participants performed a modular arithmetic task. Performance pressure and caffeine intake were orthogonally manipulated. Findings indicated that pressure and caffeine both negatively impacted performance. However, (a) pressure vs. caffeine affected performance on different trial types, and (b) there was no hint of an interactive effect. So, though the evidence is indirect, findings suggest that pressure and caffeine shape performance via distinct mechanisms, rather than a shared one.

When performance and risk taking are related: Working for rewards is related to risk taking when the value of rewards is presented briefly.

Valuable monetary rewards can boost human performance on various effortful tasks even when the value of the rewards is presented too briefly to allow for strategic decision making. However, the mechanism by which briefly-presented reward information influences performance has remained unclear. One possibility is that performance after briefly-presented reward information is primarily boosted via activation of the dopamine reward system, whereas performance after very visible reward information is driven more by strategic processes. To examine this hypothesis, we first presented participants with a task in which they could earn rewards of relatively low (1 cent) or high (10 cents) value, and the value information was presented either briefly (17 ms) or for an extended duration (300 ms). Furthermore, responsiveness of the dopamine system was indirectly estimated with a measure of risk taking, the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). Results showed that performance after high- compared to low-value rewards was indeed related to the BART scores only when reward information was presented briefly. These results are suggestive of the possibility that brief presentation of reward information boosts performance directly via activating the dopamine system, whereas extended presentation of reward information leads to more strategic reward-driven behavior.

Distinct neural responses to conscious versus unconscious monetary reward cues.

Human reward pursuit is often assumed to involve conscious processing of reward information. However, recent research revealed that reward cues enhance cognitive performance even when perceived without awareness. Building on this discovery, the present functional MRI study tested two hypotheses using a rewarded mental-rotation task. First, we examined whether subliminal rewards engage the ventral striatum (VS), an area implicated in reward anticipation. Second, we examined differences in neural responses to supraliminal versus subliminal rewards. Results indicated that supraliminal, but not subliminal, high-value reward cues engaged brain areas involved in reward processing (VS) and task performance (supplementary motor area, motor cortex, and superior temporal gyrus). This pattern of findings is striking given that subliminal rewards improved performance to the same extent as supraliminal rewards. So, the neural substrates of conscious versus unconscious reward pursuit are vastly different-but despite their differences, conscious and unconscious reward pursuit may still produce the same behavioral outcomes.

A new perspective on human reward research: how consciously and unconsciously perceived reward information influences performance.

The question of how human performance can be improved through rewards is a recurrent topic of interest in psychology and neuroscience. Traditional, cognitive approaches to this topic have focused solely on consciously communicated rewards. Recently, a largely neuroscience-inspired perspective has emerged to examine the potential role of conscious awareness of reward information in effective reward pursuit. The present article reviews research employing a newly developed monetary-reward-priming paradigm that allows for a systematic investigation of this perspective. We analyze this research to identify similarities and differences in how consciously and unconsciously perceived rewards impact three distinct aspects relevant to performance: decision making, task preparation, and task execution. We further discuss whether conscious awareness, in modulating the effects of reward information, plays a role similar to its role in modulating the effects of other affective information. Implications of these insights for understanding the role of consciousness in modulating goal-directed behavior more generally are discussed.

Separating chokers from nonchokers: predicting real-life tennis performance under pressure from behavioral tasks that tap into working memory functioning.

To better understand the characteristics of athletes who tend to underperform under pressure, we investigated how (a) working memory (WM) capacity and (b) responsiveness of the dopamine system shape real-life performance under pressure. We expected that athletes with smaller WM capacity or a more responsive dopamine system (as operationalized with a risk-taking measure) are especially prone to fail during decisive moments. In a sample of competitive tennis players, WM capacity was measured with the Automated Operation Span task (AOSPAN); responsiveness of the dopamine system was measured with a risk-taking measure, the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). As expected, higher AOSPAN scores predicted better performance during decisive sets; higher BART scores predicted worse performance during decisive sets. These findings indicate that real-life tennis performance can be predicted from behavioral tasks that tap into WM functioning and risk taking, and suggest that the ability to effectively use WM despite pressure separates chokers from nonchokers.

The ebb and flow of cognitive fatigue.

If you are currently feeling tired, you are not alone: feelings of fatigue are incredibly common. In a recent study, Matthews et al. investigated moment-to-moment fluctuations in fatigue using behavioral experiments and computational modeling. The study offers a precise account of how fatigue waxes (during physical and cognitive effort) and wanes (during rest).

Why do people sit? A framework for targeted behavior change.

To improve health and wellbeing, it is crucial that people regularly interrupt their sitting. In this paper, we propose a framework for examining and changing sitting behavior that addresses two key steps in the process towards developing effective interventions. First, we suggest that research should move away from its current focus on sitting time, which is an outcome of behavior. Rather, researchers should focus on stand-to-sit and sit-to-stand transitions, which are discrete units of behavior. Second, drawing on goal hierarchy models, we suggest that people rarely engage in stand-to-sit and sit-to-stand transitions for the purpose of being in a sitting or standing position; rather, we suggest that these transitions are means to higher-order goals (e.g., to complete work tasks, to watch television, to eat dinner). To improve adherence to and effectiveness of sitting behavior interventions, intervention designers should aim to increase the frequency of sit-to-stand (and stand-to-sit) transitions. To achieve this aim, intervention designers should capitalize on the higher-order goals that are typically served by these transitions. We suggest four concrete intervention strategies to increase sit-to-stand transitions in congruence with people's everyday goals. We also describe the implications of our framework for theory and methods in sitting behavior research.

From work stress to disease: A computational model.

In modern society, work stress is highly prevalent. Problematically, work stress can cause disease. To help understand the causal relationship between work stress and disease, we present a computational model of this relationship. That is, drawing from allostatic load theory, we captured the link between work stress and disease in a set of mathematical formulas. With simulation studies, we then examined our model's ability to reproduce key findings from previous empirical research. Specifically, results from Study 1 suggested that our model could accurately reproduce established findings on daily fluctuations in cortisol levels (both on the group level and the individual level). Results from Study 2 suggested that our model could accurately reproduce established findings on the relationship between work stress and cardiovascular disease. Finally, results from Study 3 yielded new predictions about the relationship between workweek configurations (i.e., how working hours are distributed over days) and the subsequent development of disease. Together, our studies suggest a new, computational approach to studying the causal link between work stress and disease. We suggest that this approach is fruitful, as it aids the development of falsifiable theory, and as it opens up new ways of generating predictions about why and when work stress is (un)healthy.

The effect of opportunity costs on mental fatigue in labor/leisure trade-offs.

Most people experience the feeling of mental fatigue on a daily basis. Previous research shows that mental fatigue impacts information processing and decision making. However, the proximal causes of mental fatigue are not yet well understood. In this research, we test the opportunity cost model of mental fatigue, which proposes that people become more fatigued when the next-best alternative to the current task is higher in value. In 4 preregistered experiments (N = 430), participants repeatedly reported their current level of fatigue and chose to perform a paid labor task versus an unpaid leisure task. In Study 1, all participants were offered the same labor/leisure choice. In Studies 2 and 3, we manipulated the opportunity costs of a labor task by varying the value of an alternative leisure task. In Study 4, we manipulated the opportunity costs of a labor task by varying the value of that labor task. In all studies, we found that people were more likely to choose for leisure as they became more fatigued. In Studies 2 through 4, we did not find that the manipulated leisure value influenced the amount of fatigue participants experienced nor the likelihood to choose for leisure. However, in exploratory analyses, in all studies, we found that participants who reported to value the leisure task more got more fatigued during labor and less fatigued during leisure. Collectively, these results provide cautious support for the opportunity cost model, but they also show that cost-benefit analyses relating to labor and leisure tasks are fleeting. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Correction: Protocol of the Healthy Brain Study: An accessible resource for understanding the human brain and how it dynamically and individually operates in its bio-social context.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260952.].