Reference dosimetry during diagnostic CT examination using XR-QA radiochromic film model.

PURPOSE: The authors applied 2D reference dosimetry protocol for dose measurements using XR-QA radiochromic film model during diagnostic computed tomography (CT) examinations carried out on patients and humanoid Rando phantom. METHODS: Response of XR-QA model GAFCHROMIC™ film reference dosimetry system was calibrated in terms of Air-Kerma in air. Four most commonly used CT protocols were selected on their CT scanner (GE Lightspeed VCT 64), covering three anatomical sites (head, chest, and abdomen). For each protocol, 25 patients ongoing planned diagnostic CT examination were recruited. Surface dose was measured using four or eight film strips taped on patients' skin and on Rando phantom. Film pieces were scanned prior to and after irradiation using Epson Expression™ 10000XL document scanner. Optical reflectance of the unexposed film piece was subtracted from exposed one to obtain final net reflectance change, which is subsequently converted to dose using previously established calibration curves. RESULTS: The authors' measurements show that body skin dose variation has a sinusoidal pattern along the scanning axis due to the helical movement of the x-ray tube, and a comb pattern for head dose measurements due to its axial movement. Results show that the mean skin dose at anterior position for patients is (51 ± 6) mGy, (29 ± 11) mGy, (45 ± 13) mGy and (38 ± 20) mGy for head, abdomen, angio Abdomen, and chest and abdomen protocol (UP position), respectively. The obtained experimental dose length products (DLP) show higher values than CT based DLP taken from the scanner console for body protocols, but lower values for the head protocol. Internal dose measurements inside the phantom's head indicate nonuniformity of dose distribution within scanned volume. CONCLUSIONS: In this work, the authors applied an Air-Kerma in air based radiochromic film reference dosimetry protocol for in vivo skin dose measurements. In this work, they employed green channel extracted from the scanned RGB image for dose measurements in the range from 0 to 200 mGy. Measured skin doses and corresponding DLPs were higher than DLPs provided by the CT scanner manufacturer as they were measured on patients' skin.

A systematic characterization of the low-energy photon response of plastic scintillation detectors.

To characterize the low energy behavior of scintillating materials used in plastic scintillation detectors (PSDs), 3 PSDs were developed using polystyrene-based scintillating materials emitting in different wavelengths. These detectors were exposed to National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)-matched low-energy beams ranging from 20 kVp to 250 kVp, and to (137)Cs and (60)Co beams. The dose in polystyrene was compared to the dose in air measured by NIST-calibrated ionization chambers at the same location. Analysis of every beam quality spectrum was used to extract the beam parameters and the effective mass energy-absorption coefficient. Monte Carlo simulations were also performed to calculate the energy absorbed in the scintillators' volume. The scintillators' expected response was then compared to the experimental measurements and an energy-dependent correction factor was identified to account for low-energy quenching in the scintillators. The empirical Birks model was then compared to these values to verify its validity for low-energy electrons. The clear optical fiber response was below 0.2% of the scintillator's light for x-ray beams, indicating that a negligible amount of fluorescence contamination was produced. However, for higher-energy beams ((137)Cs and (60)Co), the scintillators' response was corrected for the Cerenkov stem effect. The scintillators' response increased by a factor of approximately 4 from a 20 kVp to a (60)Co beam. The decrease in sensitivity from ionization quenching reached a local minimum of about [Formula: see text] between 40 keV and 60 keV x-ray beam mean energy, but dropped by 20% for very low-energy (13 keV) beams. The Birks model may be used to fit the experimental data, but it must take into account the energy dependence of the kB quenching parameter. A detailed comprehension of intrinsic scintillator response is essential for proper calibration of PSD dosimeters for radiology.

Systematic evaluation of photodetector performance for plastic scintillation dosimetry.

PURPOSE: The authors' objective was to systematically assess the performance of seven photodetectors used in plastic scintillation dosimetry. The authors also propose some guidelines for selecting an appropriate detector for a specific application. METHODS: The plastic scintillation detector (PSD) consisted of a 1-mm diameter, 10-mm long plastic scintillation fiber (BCF-60), which was optically coupled to a clear 10-m long optical fiber of the same diameter. A light-tight plastic sheath covered both fibers and the scintillator end was sealed. The clear fiber end was connected to one of the following photodetectors: two polychromatic cameras (one with an optical lens and one with a fiber optic taper replacing the lens), a monochromatic camera with an optical lens, a PIN photodiode, an avalanche photodiode (APD), or a photomultiplier tube (PMT). A commercially available W1 PSD was also included in the study, but it relied on its own fiber and scintillator. Each PSD was exposed to both low-energy beams (120, 180, and 220 kVp) from an orthovoltage unit and high-energy beams (6 and 23 MV) from a linear accelerator. Various dose rates were tested to identify the operating range and accuracy of each photodetector. RESULTS: For all photodetectors, the relative uncertainty was less than 5% for dose rates higher than 3 mGy/s. The cameras allowed multiple probes to be used simultaneously, but they are less sensitive to low-light signals. The PIN, APD, and PMT had higher sensitivity, making them more suitable for low dose rate and out-of-field dose monitoring. The relative uncertainty of the PMT was less than 1% at the lowest dose rate achieved (0.10 mGy/s), suggesting that it was optimal for use in live dosimetry. CONCLUSIONS: For dose rates higher than 3 mGy/s, the PIN diode is the most effective photodetector in terms of performance/cost ratio. For lower dose rates, such as those seen in interventional radiology or high-gradient radiotherapy, PMTs are the optimal choice.