Does plant ecosystem thermoregulation occur? An extratropical assessment at different spatial and temporal scales.

To what degree plant ecosystems thermoregulate their canopy temperature (Tc ) is critical to assess ecosystems' metabolisms and resilience with climate change, but remains controversial, with opinions from no to moderate thermoregulation capability. With global datasets of Tc , air temperature (Ta ), and other environmental and biotic variables from FLUXNET and satellites, we tested the 'limited homeothermy' hypothesis (indicated by Tc & Ta regression slope < 1 or Tc < Ta around midday) across global extratropics, including temporal and spatial dimensions. Across daily to weekly and monthly timescales, over 80% of sites/ecosystems have slopes ≥1 or Tc > Ta around midday, rejecting the above hypothesis. For those sites unsupporting the hypothesis, their Tc -Ta difference (ΔT) exhibits considerable seasonality that shows negative, partial correlations with leaf area index, implying a certain degree of thermoregulation capability. Spatially, site-mean ΔT exhibits larger variations than the slope indicator, suggesting ΔT is a more sensitive indicator for detecting thermoregulatory differences across biomes. Furthermore, this large spatial-wide ΔT variation (0-6°C) is primarily explained by environmental variables (38%) and secondarily by biotic factors (15%). These results demonstrate diverse thermoregulation patterns across global extratropics, with most ecosystems negating the 'limited homeothermy' hypothesis, but their thermoregulation still occurs, implying that slope < 1 or Tc < Ta are not necessary conditions for plant thermoregulation.

Ecological patterns and processes in the vertical dimension of terrestrial ecosystems.

Climatic gradients such as latitude and elevation are considered primary drivers of global biogeography. Yet, alongside these macro-gradients, the vertical space and structure generated by terrestrial plants form comparable climatic gradients but at a fraction of the distance. These vertical gradients provide a spectrum of ecological space for species to occur and coexist, increasing biodiversity. Furthermore, vertical gradients can serve as pathways for evolutionary adaptation of species traits, leading to a range of ecological specialisations. In this review, we explore the ecological evidence supporting the proposition that the vertical gradient serves as an engine driving the ecology and evolution of species and shaping larger biogeographical patterns in space and time akin to elevation and latitude. Focusing on vertebrate and invertebrate taxa, we synthesised how ecological patterns within the vertical dimension shape species composition, distribution and biotic interactions. We identify three key ecological mechanisms associated with species traits that facilitate persistence within the vertical environment and draw on empirical examples from the literature to explore these processes. Looking forward, we propose that the vertical dimension provides an excellent study template to explore timely ecological and evolutionary questions. We encourage future research to also consider how the vertical dimension will influence the resilience and response of animal taxa to global change.

Past and future decline of tropical pelagic biodiversity.

A major research question concerning global pelagic biodiversity remains unanswered: when did the apparent tropical biodiversity depression (i.e., bimodality of latitudinal diversity gradient [LDG]) begin? The bimodal LDG may be a consequence of recent ocean warming or of deep-time evolutionary speciation and extinction processes. Using rich fossil datasets of planktonic foraminifers, we show here that a unimodal (or only weakly bimodal) diversity gradient, with a plateau in the tropics, occurred during the last ice age and has since then developed into a bimodal gradient through species distribution shifts driven by postglacial ocean warming. The bimodal LDG likely emerged before the Anthropocene and industrialization, and perhaps ∼15,000 y ago, indicating a strong environmental control of tropical diversity even before the start of anthropogenic warming. However, our model projections suggest that future anthropogenic warming further diminishes tropical pelagic diversity to a level not seen in millions of years.

Home and hub: pet trade and traditional medicine impact reptile populations in source locations and destinations.

The pet trade and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) consumption are major drivers of global biodiversity loss. Tokay geckos (Gekko gecko) are among the most traded reptile species worldwide. In Hong Kong, pet and TCM markets sell tokay geckos while wild populations also persist. To clarify connections between trade sources and destinations, we compared genetics and stable isotopes of wild tokays in local and non-local populations to dried individuals from TCM markets across Hong Kong. We found that TCM tokays are likely not of local origin. Most wild tokays were related to individuals in South China, indicating a probable natural origin. However, two populations contained individuals more similar to distant populations, indicating pet trade origins. Our results highlight the complexity of wildlife trade impacts within trade hubs. Such trade dynamics complicate local legal regulation when endangered species are protected, but the same species might also be non-native and possibly damaging to the environment.

Consistent heat tolerance under starvation across seasonal morphs in Mycalesis mineus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae).

Heat tolerance is a key trait for understanding insect responses to extreme heat events, but tolerance may be modulated by changes in food availability and seasonal variability in temperature. Differences in sensitivity and resistance across life stages are also important determinants of species responses. Using a full-factorial experimental design, we here investigated the effects of larval starvation, adult starvation, and seasonal morph (developmental temperature) on heat tolerance of a seasonally polyphenic butterfly, Mycalesis mineus, in both larval and adult stages. While starvation and rearing temperature profoundly influenced various life history traits in the insect, none of the treatments affected adult heat tolerance. There was also no evidence of reduced heat tolerance in larvae under starvation stress, though larval thermal tolerance was higher by ~1 °C at the higher developmental temperature. The lack of a starvation effect was unexpected given the general physiological cost of heat tolerance mechanisms. This might be attributed to the ability to tolerate heat being preserved under resource-based trade-offs due to its critical role in ensuring insect survival. Invariant heat tolerance in M. mineus shows that some insects may have thermal capacity to cope with extreme heat under short-term starvation and seasonality disruptions, though more prolonged changes may have greater consequences. The capacity to maintain key physiological function under multiple stressors will be crucial for species resilience in future novel environments.

Predator presence and recent climatic warming raise body temperatures of island lizards.

In ectothermic predator-prey relationships, evasion of predation by prey depends on physiological and behavioural responses relating to the thermal biology of both predator and prey. On Japan's Izu Islands, we investigated a prey lizard's physiological and thermal responses to the presence of a snake predator over geologic time in addition to recent climatic warming. Foraging lizard body temperatures increased by 1.3 °C from 1981 to 2019 overall, yet were 2.9 °C warmer on snake islands relative to snake-free islands. We also detected snake predator-induced selection on hind leg length, which in turn is a major determinant for sprint speed only in lizard populations exposed to predation by snakes. Accordingly, we found that warmer prey body temperatures result in faster sprint speeds by the prey at temperatures suboptimal for the snake predator, and therefore contribute to escaping predation. Given recent climatic change, further warming could irrevocably alter this and other ectothermic predator-prey relationships.

Behavior-partitioned diversity reveals differential habitat values of gardens to butterfly communities.

Diversity metrics, essential for habitat evaluation in conservation, are often based on occurrences records with little consideration of behavioral ecology. As species use diverse habitats to perform different behaviors, reliance on occurrence records alone will fail to reveal environmental conditions shaping the behavioral importance of habitats with respect to resource exploitation. Here, we integrated occurrence and behavioral records to quantify diversity and assessed how environmental determinants shape the behavioral importance of gardens to butterflies across Hong Kong. We conducted standardized butterfly sampling and behavioral observation, and recorded environmental variables related to climate, habitat quality, and landscape connectivity. We found differential responses of diversity and behavioral diversity metrics to environmental variables. Connectivity increased taxonomic richness based on occurrence and flying across records, while temperature reduced richness based on occurrence, settling and interaction records. Floral abundance increased richness based on nectaring records only. No environmental variable promoted the average number of behavioral types observed in each taxon. Our results suggest that connectivity and temperature determine the richness of butterflies reaching gardens, while floral abundance determines whether butterflies use the sites as nectaring grounds via modifying species behaviors. Our study demonstrates the utility in integrating behavioral and diversity data to reveal how environmental conditions shape behavioral importance of habitats.

Morphological and behavioural differences facilitate tropical butterfly persistence in variable environments.

The thermal biology of ectotherms largely determines their abundance and distributions. In general, tropical species inhabiting warm and stable thermal environments tend to have low tolerance to cold and variable environments, which may restrict their expansion into temperate climates. However, the distribution of some tropical species does extend into cooler areas such as tropical borders and high elevation tropical mountains. Behavioural and morphological differences may therefore play important roles in facilitating tropical species to cope with cold and variable climates at tropical edges. We used field-validated biophysical models to estimate body temperatures of butterflies across elevational gradients at three sites in southern China and assessed the contribution of behavioural and morphological differences in facilitating their persistence in tropical and temperate climates. We investigated the effects of temperature on the activity of 4,844 individuals of 144 butterfly species along thermal gradients and tested whether species of different climatic affinities-tropical and widespread (distributed in both temperate and tropical regions)-differed in their thermoregulatory strategies (i.e. basking). In addition, we tested whether thermally related morphology or the strength of solar radiation (when butterflies were recorded) was related to such differences. We found that activities of tropical species were restricted (low abundance) at low air temperatures compared to widespread species. Active tropical species were also more likely to bask at cooler body temperatures than widespread species. Heat gain from behavioural thermoregulation was higher for tropical species (when accounting for species abundance), and heat gain correlated with larger thorax widths but not with measured solar radiation. Our results indicate that physiological intolerance to cold temperatures in tropical species may be compensated through behavioural and morphological responses in thermoregulation in variable subtropical environments. Increasing climatic variability with climate change may render tropical species more vulnerable to cold weather extremes compared to widespread species that are more physiologically suited to variable environments.

Climate Change and Thermoregulatory Consequences of Activity Time in Mammals.

Activity times structure the thermal environments experienced by organisms. In mammals, species shift from being nocturnal to diurnal and vice versa, but the thermal consequences of variable activity patterns remain largely unexplored. Here we used theoretical thermoregulatory polygons bounded by estimates of basal metabolic rates (BMR), maximum metabolic rates (MMR), and thermal conductance (C) in small mammals to explore the metabolic consequences of exposure to global-scale daytime and nighttime temperatures. Model predictions indicated higher metabolic scope for activity for nocturnal species at low latitudes and that reduced minimum C and larger body size increased the geographic range in which nocturnality was advantageous. Consistent with predictions, within rodents nocturnal species have low C. However, nocturnal mammals tend to be smaller than diurnal species, likely reflecting the importance of additional factors driving body size. Projections of warming impacts on small mammals suggest that diurnal species could lose habitable space globally. Conversely, warming could lift cool temperature constraints on nocturnal species and increase habitable space, suggesting that a shift toward nocturnal niches might be favored in a warming world. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the importance of energetic considerations for endotherms in managing global change impacts on nocturnal and diurnal species.

Omnivorous ants are less carnivorous and more protein-limited in exotic plantations.

Diets of species are crucial in determining how they influence food webs and community structures, and how their populations are regulated by different bottom-up processes. Omnivores are able to adjust their diet flexibly according to environmental conditions, such that their impacts on food webs and communities, and the macronutrients constraining their population, can be plastic. In particular, omnivore diets are known to be influenced by prey availability, which exhibits high spatial and temporal variation. To examine the plasticity of diet and macronutrient limitation in omnivores, we compared trophic positions, macronutrient preferences and food exploitation rates of omnivorous ants in invertebrate-rich (secondary forests) and invertebrate-poor (Lophostemon confertus plantations) habitats. We hypothesized that omnivorous ants would have lower trophic positions, enhanced protein limitation and reduced food exploitation rates in L. confertus plantations relative to secondary forests. We performed cafeteria experiments to examine changes in macronutrient limitation and food exploitation rates. We also sampled ants and conducted stable isotope analyses to investigate dietary shifts between these habitats. We found that conspecific ants were less carnivorous and had higher preferences for protein-rich food in L. confertus plantations compared to secondary forests. However, ant assemblages did not exhibit increased preferences for protein-rich food in L. confertus plantations. At the species-level, food exploitation rates varied idiosyncratically between habitats. At the assemblage-level, food exploitation rates were reduced in L. confertus plantations. Our results reveal that plantation establishments alter the diet and foraging behaviour of omnivorous ants. Such changes suggest that omnivorous ants in plantations will have reduced top-down impacts on prey communities but also see an increased importance of protein as a bottom-up force in constraining omnivore population sizes.

Subtropical thermal variation supports persistence of corals but limits productivity of coral reefs.

Concomitant to the decline of tropical corals caused by increasing global sea temperatures is the potential removal of barriers to species range expansions into subtropical and temperate habitats. In these habitats, species must tolerate lower annual mean temperature, wider annual temperature ranges and lower minimum temperatures. To understand ecophysiological traits that will impact geographical range boundaries, we monitored populations of five coral species within a marginal habitat and used a year of in situ measures to model thermal performance of vital host, symbiont and holobiont physiology. Metabolic responses to temperature revealed two acclimatization strategies: peak productivity occurring at annual midpoint temperatures (4-6°C lower than tropical counterparts), or at annual maxima. Modelled relationships between temperature and P:R were compared to a year of daily subtropical sea temperatures and revealed that the relatively short time spent at any one temperature, limited optimal performance of all strategies to approximately half the days of the year. Thus, while subtropical corals can adjust their physiology to persist through seasonal lows, seasonal variation seems to be the key factor limiting coral productivity. This constraint on rapid reef accretion within subtropical environments provides insight into the global distribution of future coral reefs and their ecosystem services.

Multifunctional behaviour in a sandy shore crab enhances performance in extreme intertidal environments.

Soft sediment shores in the tropics are highly dynamic environments, where behavioural patterns of organisms are constrained by tidal conditions, and environmental temperatures during an organisms' activity periods can exceed their thermal tolerance levels. In such extreme habitats, behavioural responses to environmental changes are key to survival, driving differential performance. We investigated sponging behaviour (water uptake from sediments) of the deposit-feeding crab, Scopimera intermedia, on tropical sandy shores to determine its thermoregulatory function. The thermal physiology of the crabs and their habitat conditions were quantified by measuring thermal performance curves and recording environmental temperatures during the crabs' activity periods. Environmental temperatures were combined with experimental data to investigate the role of sponging on the thermal performances of the crabs by simulating field body temperatures. Sponging rate was strongly and positively correlated with feeding rate, as sponging replenishes water for flotation feeding. Sponging, however, also reduced body temperatures on average by 1.3 °C. Simulated populations of crabs which were unable to sponge had more variable body temperatures, which exceeded the critical thermal maximum of the crabs (~ 39 °C) nearly 2000 times more often than crabs able to sponge. Sponging is, therefore, a multifunctional behavioural trait important for both feeding and thermoregulation. The evolution of such multifunctional traits is likely to be a widespread, but overlooked phenomenon in intertidal species, as maintaining a functional body temperature is energetically costly in habitats where environmental conditions fluctuate strongly such as on tropical shores.

Increased Suitability of Poleward Climate for a Tropical Butterfly (Euripus nyctelius) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) Accompanies its Successful Range Expansion.

Distribution shifts are a common response in butterflies to a warming climate. Hong Kong has documented records of several new butterfly species in recent decades, comprising a high proportion of tropical species, some of which have successfully established. In this study, we examined possible drivers for the establishment of Euripus nyctelius Doubleday (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) by studying its thermal physiology and modeling current climate and future distributions projected by species distribution modeling (SDM). We found that E. nyctelius adults have a significantly higher critical thermal minimum than its local temperate relative, Hestina assimilis Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), suggesting a possible physiological constraint that may have been lifted with recent warming. SDMs provide further evidence that a shifting climate envelope may have improved the climate suitability for E. nyctelius in Hong Kong and South China-however, we cannot rule out the role of other drivers potentially influencing or driving range expansion, habitat change in particular. Conclusive attribution of warming-driven impacts for most tropical species is difficult or not possible due to a lack of historical or long-term data. Tropical insects will require a significant advancement in efforts to monitor species and populations across countries if we are to conclusively document climate-driven shifts in species distributions and manage the consequences of such species redistribution. Nevertheless, the warming climate and subsequent increased climatic suitability for tropical species in poleward areas, as shown here, is likely to result in future species redistribution events in subtropical and temperate ecosystems.

BioTIME: A database of biodiversity time series for the Anthropocene.

MOTIVATION: The BioTIME database contains raw data on species identities and abundances in ecological assemblages through time. These data enable users to calculate temporal trends in biodiversity within and amongst assemblages using a broad range of metrics. BioTIME is being developed as a community-led open-source database of biodiversity time series. Our goal is to accelerate and facilitate quantitative analysis of temporal patterns of biodiversity in the Anthropocene. MAIN TYPES OF VARIABLES INCLUDED: The database contains 8,777,413 species abundance records, from assemblages consistently sampled for a minimum of 2 years, which need not necessarily be consecutive. In addition, the database contains metadata relating to sampling methodology and contextual information about each record. SPATIAL LOCATION AND GRAIN: BioTIME is a global database of 547,161 unique sampling locations spanning the marine, freshwater and terrestrial realms. Grain size varies across datasets from 0.0000000158 km2 (158 cm2) to 100 km2 (1,000,000,000,000 cm2). TIME PERIOD AND GRAIN: BioTIME records span from 1874 to 2016. The minimal temporal grain across all datasets in BioTIME is a year. MAJOR TAXA AND LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT: BioTIME includes data from 44,440 species across the plant and animal kingdoms, ranging from plants, plankton and terrestrial invertebrates to small and large vertebrates. SOFTWARE FORMAT: .csv and .SQL.

Colors of night: climate-morphology relationships of geometrid moths along spatial gradients in southwestern China.

Color lightness of insects is an important ecological trait affecting their performance through multiple functions such as thermoregulation, UV protection and disease resistance. The geographical pattern of color lightness in diurnal insects are relatively well understood and largely driven by thermal melanism through the enhancement of insect activity. In nocturnal insects, however, the ecological function of color lightness in response to climatic factors is poorly understood, particularly at small spatial scales. In this study, we investigated color lightness of nocturnal moth assemblages along environmental gradients. Using geometrid moths collected with comparable methodologies (light trapping), we examined assemblage-level changes in color lightness across elevational gradients and vertical strata (canopy vs understory) across three climatically different locations in Yunnan, China. The results showed that moths are darker in color at higher elevations. Such patterns are most apparent in canopy assemblages. In addition, the strength of the elevational pattern on color lightness varied across location, being most pronounced in the canopy of the subalpine site. These patterns are likely driven by UV protection and/or thermoregulation. Our study highlights the importance of abiotic factors such as temperature and solar radiation in structuring morphological patterns of nocturnal ectothermic assemblages along elevational gradients of climatically harsh environments.

Cooler performance breadth in a viviparous skink relative to its oviparous congener.

Susceptibility of species to climate change varies depending on many biological and environmental traits, such as reproductive mode and climatic exposure. For example, wider thermal tolerance breadths are associated with more climatically variable habitats and viviparity could be associated with greater vulnerability relative to oviparity. However, few examples exist detailing how such physiological and environmental traits together might shape species thermal performance. In this study we compared the thermal tolerance and performance of two sympatric skink congeners in Hong Kong that differ in habitat use and reproductive mode. The viviparous Sphenomorphus indicus lives on the forest floor while the oviparous Sphenomorphus incognitus occupies stream edges. We quantified the thermal environments in each of these habitats to compare climatic exposure and then calculated thermal safety margins, potential daily activity times within each species' thermal optimal range, and possible climate change vulnerability. Although we did not detect any differences in thermal tolerance range or thermal environments across habitats, we found cooler performance in S. indicus relative to S. incognitus. Moreover, while optimal activity time increases for both skinks under a warming scenario, we project that the thermal safety margin of S. indicus would narrow to nearly zero, thus losing its buffering capacity to potential extreme climate events in the future. This research is thus consistent with recent studies emphasizing the vulnerability of viviparous reptiles to a warming climate. The results together furthermore highlight the complexity in how environmental and physiological traits at multiple spatial scales structure climate change vulnerability of ectothermic species.

From global change to a butterfly flapping: biophysics and behaviour affect tropical climate change impacts.

Difficulty in characterizing the relationship between climatic variability and climate change vulnerability arises when we consider the multiple scales at which this variation occurs, be it temporal (from minute to annual) or spatial (from centimetres to kilometres). We studied populations of a single widely distributed butterfly species, Chlosyne lacinia, to examine the physiological, morphological, thermoregulatory and biophysical underpinnings of adaptation to tropical and temperate climates. Microclimatic and morphological data along with a biophysical model documented the importance of solar radiation in predicting butterfly body temperature. We also integrated the biophysics with a physiologically based insect fitness model to quantify the influence of solar radiation, morphology and behaviour on warming impact projections. While warming is projected to have some detrimental impacts on tropical ectotherms, fitness impacts in this study are not as negative as models that assume body and air temperature equivalence would suggest. We additionally show that behavioural thermoregulation can diminish direct warming impacts, though indirect thermoregulatory consequences could further complicate predictions. With these results, at multiple spatial and temporal scales, we show the importance of biophysics and behaviour for studying biodiversity consequences of global climate change, and stress that tropical climate change impacts are likely to be context-dependent.

Fire management, managed relocation, and land conservation options for long-lived obligate seeding plants under global changes in climate, urbanization, and fire regime.

Most species face multiple anthropogenic disruptions. Few studies have quantified the cumulative influence of multiple threats on species of conservation concern, and far fewer have quantified the potential relative value of multiple conservation interventions in light of these threats. We linked spatial distribution and population viability models to explore conservation interventions under projected climate change, urbanization, and changes in fire regime on a long-lived obligate seeding plant species sensitive to high fire frequencies, a dominant plant functional type in many fire-prone ecosystems, including the biodiversity hotspots of Mediterranean-type ecosystems. First, we investigated the relative risk of population decline for plant populations in landscapes with and without land protection under an existing habitat conservation plan. Second, we modeled the effectiveness of relocating both seedlings and seeds from a large patch with predicted declines in habitat area to 2 unoccupied recipient patches with increasing habitat area under 2 projected climate change scenarios. Finally, we modeled 8 fire return intervals (FRIs) approximating the outcomes of different management strategies that effectively control fire frequency. Invariably, long-lived obligate seeding populations remained viable only when FRIs were maintained at or above a minimum level. Land conservation and seedling relocation efforts lessened the impact of climate change and land-use change on obligate seeding populations to differing degrees depending on the climate change scenario, but neither of these efforts was as generally effective as frequent translocation of seeds. While none of the modeled strategies fully compensated for the effects of land-use and climate change, an integrative approach managing multiple threats may diminish population declines for species in complex landscapes. Conservation plans designed to mitigate the impacts of a single threat are likely to fail if additional threats are ignored.

High-resolution climate data reveal an increasing risk of warming-driven activity restriction for diurnal and nocturnal lizards.

Widespread species experience a variety of climates across their distribution, which can structure their thermal tolerance, and ultimately, responses to climate change. For ectotherms, activity is highly dependent on temperature, its variability and availability of favourable microclimates. Thermal exposure and tolerance may be structured by the availability and heterogeneity of microclimates for species living along temperature and/or precipitation gradients - but patterns and mechanisms underlying such gradients are poorly understood. We measured critical thermal limits (CTmax and CTmin) for five populations of two sympatric lizard species, a nocturnal gecko (Chondrodactylus bibronii) and a diurnal skink (Trachylepis variegata) and recorded hourly thermal variation for a year in three types of microclimate relevant to the activity of lizards (crevice, full sun and partial shade) for six sites across a precipitation gradient. Using a combination of physiological and modelling approaches, we derived warming tolerance for the present and the end of the century. In the present climate, we found an overall wider thermal tolerance for the nocturnal species relative to the diurnal species, and no variation in CTmax but variable CTmin along the precipitation gradient for both species. However, warming tolerances varied significantly over the course of the day, across months and microhabitats. The diurnal skink was most restricted in its daily activity in the three driest sites with up to six daily hours of restricted activity in the open (i.e. outside refugia) during the summer months, while the impacts for the nocturnal gecko were less severe, due to its higher CTmax and night activity. With climate change, lizards will experience more months where activity is restricted and increased exposure to high temperatures even within the more sheltered microhabitats. Together our results highlight the importance of considering the relevant spatiotemporal scale and habitat for understanding the thermal exposure of diurnal and nocturnal species.

Global Spore Sampling Project: A global, standardized dataset of airborne fungal DNA.

Novel methods for sampling and characterizing biodiversity hold great promise for re-evaluating patterns of life across the planet. The sampling of airborne spores with a cyclone sampler, and the sequencing of their DNA, have been suggested as an efficient and well-calibrated tool for surveying fungal diversity across various environments. Here we present data originating from the Global Spore Sampling Project, comprising 2,768 samples collected during two years at 47 outdoor locations across the world. Each sample represents fungal DNA extracted from 24 m3 of air. We applied a conservative bioinformatics pipeline that filtered out sequences that did not show strong evidence of representing a fungal species. The pipeline yielded 27,954 species-level operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Each OTU is accompanied by a probabilistic taxonomic classification, validated through comparison with expert evaluations. To examine the potential of the data for ecological analyses, we partitioned the variation in species distributions into spatial and seasonal components, showing a strong effect of the annual mean temperature on community composition.