Effects of a brief parenting intervention on Latinx mothers and their children.

Parent-Child Interactions (PCI) is a home visit parenting intervention designed to promote positive parenting and deter punitive approaches to child behavior management. With attention to the importance of providing efficacious interventions for families from diverse backgrounds, this study used a subsample from a larger randomized controlled trial (RCT) to examine the efficacy of PCI intervention among Latinx participants. PCI was offered to 170 at-risk Latinx mother-child dyads, of whom the majority were primarily Spanish speaking. Dyads were randomly assigned to an intervention or a wait-list control condition. Path analysis modeling was used to examine parenting outcomes as a mediator of program efficacy between group assignment and children's long-term functioning. Results suggest that Latinx parent and child functioning benefited from PCI intervention 6 months following intervention. Specifically, model results indicated significant indirect effects of the PCI intervention on (1) cooperative child behavior and (2) children's externalizing behaviors 6-months posttreatment via parenting at post test, with mother-child dyads assigned to the treatment condition, relative to the control, demonstrating better functioning 6-months posttreatment. Overall, findings contribute to increased understanding of parenting intervention implementation among Latinx families. Recommendations for future study are discussed.

Interacciones entre padres e hijos (Parent-Child Interactions, PCI) es una intervención en la crianza con visitas a los hogares diseñada para promover la crianza positiva y desalentar los métodos correctivos de manejo del comportamiento infantil. Con atención a la importancia de ofrecer intervenciones eficaces para las familias de distintos orígenes, en este estudio se utilize una submuestra de un ensayo controlado aleatorizado más grande para analizar la eficacia de una intervención de PCI entre participantes latinas. Se ofreció la PCI a 170 díadas de madres e hijas latinas en riesgo, de las cuales la mayoría eran principalmente hispanohablantes. Las díadas se asignaron aleatoriamente a un grupo de intervención o de control en lista de espera. Se utilizó el modelo de análisis de ruta para analizar los resultados de la crianza como mediadora de la eficacia del programa entre la distribución a los grupos y el funcionamiento a largo plazo de las niñas. Los resultados sugieren que el funcionamiento de las madres latinas y las niñas se benefició de la intervención de PCI seis meses después de la intervención. Específicamente, los resultados del modelo indicaron efectos indirectos significativos de la intervención de PCI en (1) el comportamiento cooperativo de las niñas y (2) las conductas de exteriorización de las niñas seis meses después del tratamiento mediante la crianza en la evaluación posterior, donde las díadas madre e hija asignadas al grupo de tratamiento, respecto del de control, demostraron un major funcionamiento seis meses después del tratamiento. En general, los resultados contribuyen a una mayor comprensión de la implementación de intervenciones en la crianza entre las familias latinas. Se comentan las recomendaciones para futuros estudios.

Maternal parentification history impacts evaluative cognitions about self, parenting, and child.

Parentification occurs when children are unfairly charged with fulfilling parental instrumental and emotional needs. Parentification is associated with risk to evaluative self cognitions from childhood to emerging adulthood, but this association has not yet been studied among parents. The transition to parenthood is typically characterized by declines in self-esteem, suggesting it is a critical period for understanding the risk parentification history poses to evaluative self-cognitions and evaluative cognitions about children. The present study addresses these gaps using longitudinal data (N = 374 first-time mothers) to examine the influence of maternal parentification history domains (emotional and instrumental caregiving, role unfairness) on trajectories of maternal evaluative cognitions about the self (self-esteem, parenting self-efficacy) and about the child (difficult child temperament, dissatisfaction with child contributions to relationships) in early parenthood. A spillover model was also examined such that evaluative cognitions about the self were examined as potential mediators between parentification history and evaluative cognitions about children. Results support associations between the role unfairness domain of parentification and each domain of maternal evaluative cognitions and a significant indirect effect of unfairness on risk to maternal evaluative cognitions about child contributions via parenting self-efficacy. Implications for mother-child relationships and processes of intergenerational transmission of parentification are discussed.

La parentalización ocurre cuando a los niños se les hace asumir injustamente las necesidades instrumentales y emocionales de los padres. Se asocia la parentalización con el riesgo de auto cognición evaluativa de la niñez al naciente estado de adultez, pero esta asociación no ha sido aún estudiada entre los padres. La transición a la condición de ser padres se caracteriza típicamente por las bajas en la auto estima, lo cual sugiere que se trata de un período crítico para comprender el riesgo que el historial de la parentalización presenta para la auto cognición evaluativa y las cogniciones evaluativas sobre los niños. El presente estudio trata de estos vacíos usando datos longitudinales (N = 374 madres primerizas) para examinar la influencia de los campos del historial de la parentalización materna (el cuidado emocional e instrumental, el papel de lo que es injusto) sobre las trayectorias de las cogniciones evaluativas maternas acerca de ellas mismas (auto estima, auto efectividad en la crianza) y acerca del niño (el difícil temperamento del niño, la insatisfacción con las contribuciones del niño a las relaciones) en la temprana etapa de la maternidad. Se examinó un modelo de efectos secundarios de tal manera que se examinaron las cogniciones evaluativas acerca del yo como posibles factores de mediación entre el historial de parentalización y las cogniciones evaluativas acerca de los niños. Los resultados apoyan las asociaciones entre el papel del ámbito de lo injusto de la parentalización y cada ámbito de cogniciones evaluativas maternas y un efecto indirecto significativo de lo injusto sobre el riesgo de cogniciones evaluativas maternas sobre las contribuciones del niño por medio de la auto efectividad de la crianza. Se discuten las implicaciones de las relaciones madre-niño y los procesos de transmisión intergeneracional de la parentalización.

La parentification prend place lorsque on exige injustement des enfants qu'ils remplissent les besoins instrumentaux et émotionnels parentaux. La parentification est liée au risque d'auto-cognitions évaluatives de l'enfance au début de l'âge adulte, mais cette association n'a pas encore été étudiée chez les parents. La transition à la parenté est typiquement caractérisée par des déclins dans la confiance, suggérant que c'est une période critique pour comprendre l'histoire de risque que la parentification pose aux auto-cognitions évaluative et aux cognitions évaluatives sur les enfants. Cette étude porte sur ces écarts en utilisant des données longitudinales (N = 374 mères dont c'était la première grossesse) afin d'examiner l'influence des domaines de l'histoire de la parentification maternelle (soins émotionnels et instrumentaux, injustice du rôle) sur des trajectoires de cognition évaluative maternelle sur le moi (confiance en soi, auto-efficacité de parentage) et sur l'enfant (tempérament difficile de l'enfant, insatisfaction avec les contributions de l'enfant à la relation) au début de la parenté. Un modèle de débordement a aussi été examiné de telle manière que les cognitions évaluatives sur le self ont été examinées en tant que médiatrices potentielles entre l'histoire de parentification et les cognitions évaluatives sur les enfants. Les résultats soutiennent les liens entre le domaine de parentification de l'injustice du rôle et chaque domaine de cognitions évaluatives maternelles et un effet indirect important de l'injustice sur le risque aux cognitions évaluatives maternelles sur les contributions de l'enfant au travers de l'auto-efficacité de parentage. Les implications pour les relations mère-enfant et les processus de transmission intergénérationnelle de la parentification sont discutés.

Effective intervention programming: improving maternal adjustment through parent education.

This study assessed the secondary effects of a parent training intervention program on maternal adjustment, with a focus on understanding ways in which program efficacy differed for participants as a function of whether or not their children had behavior problems. Mothers (N = 99) of toddlers (2-3 years of age) were randomly assigned to receive one of three levels of intervention: (1) informational booklet (2) booklet + face-to-face parent training sessions, or (3) booklet + web-based parent training sessions. Findings indicated that all levels of intervention were associated with increases in maternal well-being for participants with typically developing children. Mothers of toddlers with behavior problems, however, did not benefit from receiving only the booklet but significantly benefitted from receiving either the face-to-face or web-based interventions. Findings are discussed in terms of efficient and efficacious program dissemination and the resulting implications for public policy.

Self-Regulation Mediates the Relationship between Learner Typology and Achievement in At - Risk Children.

A person-centered approach was used to explore the mediating role of self-regulation between learner typology at age 8 and academic achievement at age 14while controlling for domain-specific achievement in a longitudinal sample of 113 children born to adolescent mothers. Children were classified into one of 5 learner typologies at age 8based on interactive patterns of intellectual, achievement, and adaptive abilities. Typology classification explained significant variance in both reading and mathematics achievement at age 14. A bootstrapping approach confirmed that self-regulation mediated the relationship between typology and reading and mathematical achievement for children from all typologies except those classified as Cognitively and Adaptively Challenged. Implications of person-centered approaches for understanding processes involved with achievement are discussed.

Using a novel genetic algorithm to assess peer influence on willingness to use pre-exposure prophylaxis in networks of Black men who have sex with men.

The DeGroot model for opinion diffusion over social networks dates back to the 1970s and models the mechanism by which information or disinformation spreads through a network, changing the opinions of the agents. Extensive research exists about the behavior of the DeGroot model and its variations over theoretical social networks; however, research on how to estimate parameters of this model using data collected from an observed network diffusion process is much more limited. Existing algorithms require large data sets that are often infeasible to obtain in public health or social science applications. In order to expand the use of opinion diffusion models to these and other applications, we developed a novel genetic algorithm capable of recovering the parameters of a DeGroot opinion diffusion process using small data sets, including those with missing data and more model parameters than observed time steps. We demonstrate the efficacy of the algorithm on simulated data and data from a social network intervention leveraging peer influence to increase willingness to take pre-exposure prophylaxis in an effort to decrease transmission of human immunodeficiency virus among Black men who have sex with men.

Intergenerational Risk of Parentification and Infantilization to Externalizing Moderated by Child Temperament.

OBJECTIVE: The present study examined the intergenerational risk of instrumental filial responsibility in the first generation on children's externalizing behaviors in the next generation and examined difficult child temperament as a potential moderator of this association. BACKGROUND: Filial responsibility refers to children's instrumental or emotional caregiving roles (Kuperminc, Jurkovic, & Casey, 2009). Moderate levels of instrumental responsibility, such as age-appropriate responsibilities, may be normative whereas too much (parentification) or too little (infantilization) responsibility are associated with risk to development (Jurkovic, 1997), parenting, and offspring development (Nuttall, Valentino & Borkowski, 2012). Prior work has not isolated the unique effects of instrumental caregiving or identified the children most susceptible to intergenerational risk. METHOD: A multi-site, longitudinal design assessed a diverse sample of first-time mothers and their children. Data from the present study (N=374) were drawn from the third trimester of pregnancy, 12-month and 36-month assessments. RESULTS: Results support the curvilinear association between maternal history of instrumental caregiving and offspring externalizing symptoms controlling for emotional caregiving. Difficult child temperament moderated the association. CONCLUSION: Maternal instrumental caregiving history increases risk to children's externalizing symptoms, particularly at high (parentification) and low (infantilization) levels of instrumental caregiving and when child temperament is easy rather than difficult.

Efficacy of a reminiscing and emotion training intervention on maltreating families with preschool-aged children.

The current investigation reports the results of a randomized controlled trial of a brief, relational intervention for maltreated preschool-aged children and their mothers, called Reminiscing and Emotion Training (RET). RET facilitates elaborative and emotionally supportive parent-child communication, which is an essential component of the parent-child relationship and is especially relevant for the preschool age period. Participants were 248 children between the ages of 3- to 6-years-old and their mothers. Following a baseline assessment, 165 maltreating families were randomized into RET or a Community Standard (CS) condition in which families received case management and written parenting information; 83 families participated in the nonmaltreating comparison condition. Results indicated that the key mechanisms targeted by the RET interventions were enhanced, such that mothers who participated in RET were significantly better in elaboration and sensitive guidance during reminiscing at the posttest than were maltreating mothers who did not receive the intervention, with medium to large effect sizes; additionally, mothers in the RET group were more elaborative than mothers from the nonmaltreatment group. Children in the RET condition also contributed significantly more memories and had better emotional knowledge than did children in the CS condition, controlling for baseline values and language, and approximated the functioning of nonmaltreated children. These findings add to a growing literature underscoring the benefits of brief, focused, relational interventions for maltreated children and their caregivers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Cell phones and the measurement of child neglect: the validity of the parent-child activities interview.

Two multisite studies were conducted to assess the feasibility of using cell phone interviews (the Parent-Child Activities Interview) to learn more about the quality of daily parenting among high-risk mothers, including child neglect. In Study 1, 45 primiparous teenage mothers with 3- to 9-month-old infants were recruited and randomly assigned to two groups: one received frequent cell phone interviews and the other group less frequent interviews over their home telephone. Relationships among paper-and-pencil surveys of parenting (gathered in person) and a Parenting Essentials score (coded from the phone interviews) were significantly correlated. In Study 2, adolescent and adult mothers and their first-born children ( n = 544) completed 2 observations of parenting in their home as well as a series of 3 PCA calls at ages 4 and 8 months. Parenting Essentials coded from the interviews were significantly related to observed measures of parenting at both time points. The Parent-Child Activities Interview shows promise as a reliable and valid measure of parenting, capturing frequent and detailed information about daily parenting practices. Cell phones may prove useful in intervening with mothers at risk of suboptimal parenting and child neglect.

Long-Term Impact of a Cell Phone-Enhanced Parenting Intervention.

Home visiting programs support positive parenting in populations at-risk of child maltreatment, but their impact is often limited by poor retention and engagement. The current study assessed whether a cellular phone-supported version (PCI-C) of the Parent-Child Interactions (PCI) intervention improved long-term parenting practices, maternal depression, and children's aggression. Low-income mothers ( n = 371) of preschool-aged children were assigned to one of the three groups: PCI-C, PCI, and a wait-list control (WLC) group. Parenting improved in both intervention groups between baseline and 12-month follow-up compared to the WLC. Children in the PCI-C group were rated to be more cooperative and less aggressive than children in the WLC. The results offer evidence of the long-term effectiveness of PCI and the additional benefits of cellular phone supports for promoting intervention retention and improving children's behavior.

Prey risk allocation in a grazing ecosystem.

Understanding the behaviorally mediated indirect effects of predators in ecosystems requires knowledge of predator-prey behavioral interactions. In predator-ungulate-plant systems, empirical research quantifying how predators affect ungulate group sizes and distribution, in the context of other influential variables, is particularly needed. The risk allocation hypothesis proposes that prey behavioral responses to predation risk depend on background frequencies of exposure to risk, and it can be used to make predictions about predator-ungulate-plant interactions. We determined non-predation variables that affect elk (Cervus elaphus) group sizes and distribution on a winter range in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) using logistic and log-linear regression on surveys of 513 1-km2 areas conducted over two years. Employing model selection techniques, we evaluated risk allocation and other a priori hypotheses of elk group size and distributional responses to wolf (Canis lupus) predation risk while accounting for influential non-wolf-predation variables. We found little evidence that wolves affect elk group sizes, which were strongly influenced by habitat type and hunting by humans. Following predictions from the risk allocation hypothesis, wolves likely created a more dynamic elk distribution in areas that they frequently hunted, as elk tended to move following wolf encounters in those areas. This response should dilute elk foraging pressure on plant communities in areas where they are frequently hunted by wolves. We predict that this should decrease the spatial heterogeneity of elk impacts on grasslands in areas that wolves frequently hunt. We also predict that this should decrease browsing pressure on heavily browsed woody plant stands in certain areas, which is supported by recent research in the GYE.

Behavioral responses of bison and elk in Yellowstone to snowmobiles and snow coaches.

Managers of public lands are charged with protecting some of our most important natural resources and ecosystems, while providing for their use and enjoyment by visitors. Almost one million visitors entered Yellowstone National Park by motorized means on snowmobiles (87%) or snow coaches (13%) during 1992-2003. Most vehicles toured the central portion of the park where bison (Bison bison) and elk (Cervus elaphus) concentrate in geothermal areas. We sampled >6500 interactions between groups of these species and groups of snowmobiles and snow coaches (collectively, OSV, over-snow vehicles) during five winters (1999-2000, 2002-2004). Multinomial logits models were used to identify conditions leading to behavioral responses. Elk responded three times as often (52%) as bison (19%) during interactions with groups of snowmobiles and snow coaches due to increased vigilance responses (elk, 44%; bison, 10%). However, the frequency of higher-intensity movement responses by bison and elk were similar (6-7% travel, 1-2% flight, <1% defense) and relatively low compared to other studies of ungulates and snowmobile disturbance. The likelihood of active responses by bison and elk increased significantly if animals were on or near roads, groups were smaller, or humans approached. The likelihood of an active response by bison decreased within winters having the largest visitation, suggesting some habituation to snowmobiles and snow coaches. There was no evidence that snowmobile use during the past 35 years affected the population dynamics or demography of bison or elk. Thus, we suggest that regulations restricting levels and travel routes of over-snow vehicles (OSVs) were effective at reducing disturbances to bison and elk below a level that would cause measurable fitness effects. We recommend park managers consider maintaining OSV traffic levels at or below those observed during our study. Regardless, differing interpretations of the behavioral and physiological response data will continue to exist because of the diverse values and beliefs of the many constituencies of Yellowstone.

Assessment of prey vulnerability through analysis of wolf movements and kill sites.

Within predator-prey systems behavior can heavily influence spatial dynamics, and accordingly, the theoretical study of how spatial dynamics relate to stability within these systems has a rich history. However, our understanding of these behaviors in large mammalian systems is poorly developed. To address the relationship between predator selection patterns, prey density, and prey vulnerability, we quantified selection patterns for two fine-scale behaviors of a recovering wolf (Canis lupus) population in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. Wolf spatial data were collected between November and May from 1998-1999 until 2001-2002. Over four winters, 244 aerial locations, 522 ground-based telemetry locations, 1287 km of movement data from snow tracking, and the locations of 279 wolf kill sites were recorded. There was evidence that elk (Cervus elaphus) and bison (Bison bison) densities had a weak effect on the sites where wolves traveled and made kills. Wolf movements showed a strong selection for geothermal areas, meadows, and areas near various types of habitat edges. Proximity to edge and habitat class also had a strong influence on the locations where elk were most vulnerable to predation. There was little evidence that wolf kill sites differed from the places where wolves traveled, indicating that elk vulnerability influenced where wolves selected to travel. Our results indicate that elk are more vulnerable to wolves under certain conditions and that wolves are capable of selecting for these conditions. As such, vulnerability plays a central role in predator-prey behavioral games and can potentially impact the systems to which they relate.

Temporal variability in winter travel patterns of Yellowstone bison: the effects of road grooming.

The influence of winter recreation on wildlife in Yellowstone National Park (YNP), Wyoming and Montana, USA, is a controversial issue. In particular, the effects of road grooming, done to facilitate snowmobile and snowcoach travel, on bison (Bison bison) ecology are under debate. We collected data during winters, from 1997 to 2005, on bison road use, off-road travel, and activity budgets to quantify temporal trends in the amount of bison road and off-road travel and to identify the ecological factors affecting bison movements and use of the groomed road system in the Madison-Gibbon-Firehole (MGF) area of YNP. Using model comparison techniques, we found bison travel patterns to be influenced by multiple, interacting effects. Road travel was negatively correlated with road grooming, and we found no evidence that bison preferentially used groomed roads during winter. Snow water equivalent, bison density, and the springtime melt period were positively correlated with both bison road and off-road travel. From behavioral scans on 68,791 bison, we found that travel is only a small percentage (11%) of all bison activity, with foraging comprising 67% of observations. Also, only 7% of traveling bison and 30% of foraging bison were displacing snow, and we suggest foraging, rather than traveling, is likely the major energetic cost to bison in winter. Bison utilize their own trail network, connecting foraging areas using stream corridors, geothermal pathways, and self-groomed travel routes. Our results indicate that temporal patterns in bison road travel are a manifestation of general travel behavior and that groomed roads in the MGF do not appear to be a major factor influencing bison ecology and spatial redistribution. We suggest that the changes in bison spatial dynamics during the past three decades have likely been the result of the natural phenomenon of density-dependent range expansion, rather than having been caused by the anthropogenic influence of road grooming.

Fathers' influence in the lives of children with adolescent mothers.

Little is known about the extent, nature, and impact of fathers of children with adolescent mothers. The current study measured father involvement with 134 children of adolescent mothers over the first 10 years of life. Overall, 59% had consistent father contact across the first 8 years. This contact was associated with better socioemotional and academic functioning at 8 and 10 years of age, particularly in school related areas. Children with greater levels of father contact had fewer behavioral problems and had higher scores on reading achievement; these results held after controlling for maternal risk. The findings showed the important role that fathers play in the lives of at-risk children, even if the father does not reside with the child.

The potential for child neglect: the case of adolescent mothers and their children.

The present study examines the role of neglect potential in adolescent mother-child dyads, both in terms of antecedents and its consequences for children's development. Participants were 100 adolescent mother-child dyads who were part of a larger, longitudinal study. Data were collected from the third trimester of pregnancy until the children's 10th year. Histories of maternal neglect and the quality of mother-child interactions during early childhood were found to predict neglect potential during middle childhood. Mothers with high neglect potential had children who exhibited more externalizing problems and fewer adaptive behaviors, with neglect potential mediating the effects of both early abuse potential and the quality of parenting on children's later externalizing behaviors. Results suggest that neglect potential may be a mechanism through which early potential for child abuse and insensitive maternal interactions affect later externalizing problems in children of adolescent mothers.

Religiosity and the socioemotional adjustment of adolescent mothers and their children.

This study assessed the impact of religiosity on the socioemotional and behavioral outcomes of 91 adolescent mothers and their offspring over 10 years. Religiosity was defined as involvement in church and contact with and dependence on church officials and members. Mothers classified as high in religious involvement had significantly higher self-esteem and lower depression scores, exhibited less child abuse potential, and had higher occupational and educational attainment than mothers classified as low in religious involvement; differences remained when multiple factors, such as stress and grandmother support, were held constant. Children with more religious mothers had fewer internalizing and externalizing problems at 10 years of age, with maternal adjustment mediating this relationship. Religiosity, through increased social support, served as a protective factor for teenaged mothers and their children.

Maternal history of parentification and warm responsiveness: The mediating role of knowledge of infant development.

Maternal history of parentification in the family of origin poses subsequent risk to parenting quality during the transition to parenthood. The present study builds on prior work by evaluating whether the association between maternal parentification history and warm responsiveness is mediated by maternal knowledge of infant development in first time mothers. Using data from a prospective longitudinal study on the transition to motherhood, maternal knowledge of infant development and observational codings of warm responsiveness were examined across the first 18 months of parenthood for 374 mothers who also provided retrospective reports of their childhood parentification experiences. Results indicated that maternal retrospective reports of higher engagement in parentified roles in family of origin were associated with poorer knowledge of infant development across the first 18 months of parenthood and, in turn, less warm responsiveness with 18-month-old children. However, maternal parentification history did not significantly influence changes in maternal warm responsiveness across the transition to parenthood. These findings suggest that preventive interventions targeting maternal knowledge of infant development as early as the prenatal period may be useful for preventing poor warm responsiveness.

Self-efficacy in adolescents who have siblings with or without disabilities.

Fifty-four adolescents (27 with and 27 without a sibling who had a disability) were contrasted on levels of self-efficacy. Adolescents completed questionnaires measuring self-efficacy, peer competence, and maternal attitudes toward and modeling of prosocial and empathic behavior. None of the adolescent measures differed significantly between those whose siblings did or did not have disabilities. Females evidenced higher levels of self-efficacy than did males, regardless of sibling's disability status. For adolescents with siblings who did not have disabilities, interpersonal competence was significantly related to self-efficacy. For adolescents whose siblings had disabilities, interpersonal competence and maternal attitudes and modeling were significantly related to self-efficacy. Process-oriented variables associated with self-efficacy were identified and could become targets for intervention efforts to influence this positive set of beliefs in adolescents.

Reliability and validity of the mother-child neglect scale.

The current study offers a new way to ascertain information about child neglect by evaluating a self-report measure of neglectful behaviors, the Mother-Child Neglect Scale (MCNS). The scale was modified from an existing self-report measure, the Neglect Scale (NS), which was originally designed to measure personal histories of neglect. One hundred adolescent mothers were administered the MCNS and NS in two occasions via phone interviews. In addition, maternal abuse potential and the quality of mother-child interactions were assessed when children were age 3 and 5 years. The MCNS had high internal consistency and moderate test-retest reliability. Convergent validity was found between the MCNS and maternal histories of neglect as well as observed parenting behaviors and child abuse potential; those relationships remained after social desirability was controlled. This research tool may prove useful, in conjunction with existing assessment instruments, in determining the type and severity of past neglectful behaviors.

"My Baby & Me": effects of an early, comprehensive parenting intervention on at-risk mothers and their children.

This study examined the efficacy of a multimodule parenting intervention, "My Baby & Me," that began prenatally and continued until children reached 2.5 years of age. The intervention targeted specific parenting skills designed to alter trajectories of maternal and child development. Of 361 high-risk mothers (193 adolescents, 168 adults) enrolled across 4 states, half were randomly assigned to the high-intensity (HI) home visitation coaching program (55 sessions), and half to a low-intensity (LI) condition that included monthly phone calls from a coach, printed informational materials, and community resource referrals. Videotaped observations of mother-child play were coded at 5 time points for multiple maternal and child behaviors and skills. Compared to mothers in the LI group, mothers in the HI group showed higher levels of contingent responsiveness, higher quality verbal stimulation, and more verbal scaffolding by 30 months, with higher levels of warmth and greater decreases in physical intrusiveness and negativity when their children were 24 months. By 30 months, children in the HI group showed more rapid increases and higher levels of engagement with the environment, expressive language skills, and social engagement, as well as more complex toy play and fewer problem behaviors than those in the LI group. Gains in maternal responsive behaviors mediated the effects of the intervention on child outcomes. Results were comparable for adolescent and adult mothers. A strong theoretical framework, consistent focus on maternal responsiveness, high dosage, and trusting relationships with coaches are thought to explain the positive outcomes.