PAMPer and tRIGer: ligand-induced activation of RIG-I.

Retinoic-acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) is an important component of the innate immune response to many RNA viruses that limits viral replication until adaptive immunity becomes available to clear the infection. Upon binding to the nucleic acid genomes and replication intermediates of these viruses, RIG-I undergoes a complex activation process that involves post-translational modifications and structural rearrangements. Once activated, RIG-I upregulates well-studied signal transduction pathways that lead to the production of type-I interferons (IFNs) and a large variety of antiviral IFN-stimulated genes. Thus, an effective antiviral response is dependent on the interaction between pathogen-derived ligands and RIG-I. Recent work has begun to clarify the required characteristics of RIG-I activators and is setting the stage for the identification of authentic ligands used during viral infection.

ELMO domains, evolutionary and functional characterization of a novel GTPase-activating protein (GAP) domain for Arf protein family GTPases.

The human family of ELMO domain-containing proteins (ELMODs) consists of six members and is defined by the presence of the ELMO domain. Within this family are two subclassifications of proteins, based on primary sequence conservation, protein size, and domain architecture, deemed ELMOD and ELMO. In this study, we used homology searching and phylogenetics to identify ELMOD family homologs in genomes from across eukaryotic diversity. This demonstrated not only that the protein family is ancient but also that ELMOs are potentially restricted to the supergroup Opisthokonta (Metazoa and Fungi), whereas proteins with the ELMOD organization are found in diverse eukaryotes and thus were likely the form present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor. The segregation of the ELMO clade from the larger ELMOD group is consistent with their contrasting functions as unconventional Rac1 guanine nucleotide exchange factors and the Arf family GTPase-activating proteins, respectively. We used unbiased, phylogenetic sorting and sequence alignments to identify the most highly conserved residues within the ELMO domain to identify a putative GAP domain within the ELMODs. Three independent but complementary assays were used to provide an initial characterization of this domain. We identified a highly conserved arginine residue critical for both the biochemical and cellular GAP activity of ELMODs. We also provide initial evidence of the function of human ELMOD1 as an Arf family GAP at the Golgi. These findings provide the basis for the future study of the ELMOD family of proteins and a new avenue for the study of Arf family GTPases.

Influenza A virus neuraminidase protein enhances cell survival through interaction with carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 6 (CEACAM6) protein.

The influenza virus neuraminidase (NA) protein primarily aids in the release of progeny virions from infected cells. Here, we demonstrate a novel role for NA in enhancing host cell survival by activating the Src/Akt signaling axis via an interaction with carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 6/cluster of differentiation 66c (C6). NA/C6 interaction leads to increased tyrosyl phosphorylation of Src, FAK, Akt, GSK3ß, and Bcl-2, which affects cell survival, proliferation, migration, differentiation, and apoptosis. siRNA-mediated suppression of C6 resulted in a down-regulation of activated Src, FAK, and Akt, increased apoptosis, and reduced expression of viral proteins and viral titers in influenza virus-infected human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial and normal human bronchial epithelial cells. These findings indicate that influenza NA not only aids in the release of progeny virions, but also cell survival during viral replication.

Gold nanorod delivery of an ssRNA immune activator inhibits pandemic H1N1 influenza viral replication.

The emergence of the pandemic 2009 H1N1 influenza virus has become a world-wide health concern. As drug resistance appears, a new generation of therapeutic strategies will be required. Here, we introduce a nanotechnology approach for the therapy of pan-demic and seasonal influenza virus infections. This approach uses gold nanorods (GNRs) to deliver an innate immune activator, pro-ducing a localized therapeutic response. We demonstrated the utility of a biocompatible gold nanorod, GNR-5'PPP-ssRNA nanoplex, as an antiviral strategy against type A influenza virus. In human respiratory bronchial epithelial cells, this nanoplex activated the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) pathogen recognition pathway, resulting in increased expression of IFN-beta and other IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) (e.g., PKR, MDA5, IRF1, IRF7, and MX1). This increase in type I IFN and ISGs resulted in a decrease in the replication of H1N1 influenza viruses. These findings suggest that further evaluation of biocompatible nanoplexes as unique antivirals for treatment of seasonal and pandemic influenza viruses is warranted.

Assays used in the analysis of Arl2 and its binding partners.

Arl2 is a approximately 20 kDa GTPase in the ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) family within the Ras superfamily with roles in microtubule dynamics that impact the cytoskeleton, cell division, and cytokinesis. Arl2 has been implicated as a regulator of the pathway responsible for formation of properly folded tubulin heterodimers and in adenine nucleotide transport in mitochondria. The identification and characterization of Arl2 binding partners and regulators of Arl2 activities are critical steps in the further dissection of these and likely other Arl2-dependent functions. This chapter describes methods for preparing recombinant Arl2, loading different radiolabeled guanine nucleotides onto the GTPase, identifying high-affinity Arl2 binding proteins, and assaying Arl2 GTPase activating proteins (GAPs). These methods may also prove useful for studies of other Arls or other GTPases.

RIG-I goes beyond naked recognition.

It is currently unclear at which point during viral replication that RNA genomes are first recognized as nonself by the immune system. In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, Weber et al. show that incoming nucleocapsid-bound genomes are sufficient to bind and activate innate immune sensors.

The 3' untranslated regions of influenza genomic sequences are 5'PPP-independent ligands for RIG-I.

Retinoic acid inducible gene-I (RIG-I) is a key regulator of antiviral immunity. RIG-I is generally thought to be activated by ssRNA species containing a 5'-triphosphate (PPP) group or by unphosphorylated dsRNA up to ~300 bp in length. However, it is not yet clear how changes in the length, nucleotide sequence, secondary structure, and 5' end modification affect the abilities of these ligands to bind and activate RIG-I. To further investigate these parameters in the context of naturally occurring ligands, we examined RNA sequences derived from the 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTR) of the influenza virus NS1 gene segment. As expected, RIG-I-dependent interferon-ß (IFN-ß) induction by sequences from the 5' UTR of the influenza cRNA or its complement (26 nt in length) required the presence of a 5'PPP group. In contrast, activation of RIG-I by the 3' UTR cRNA sequence or its complement (172 nt) exhibited only a partial 5'PPP-dependence, as capping the 5' end or treatment with CIP showed a modest reduction in RIG-I activation. Furthermore, induction of IFN-ß by a smaller, U/A-rich region within the 3' UTR was completely 5'PPP-independent. Our findings demonstrated that RNA sequence, length, and secondary structure all contributed to whether or not the 5'PPP moiety is needed for interferon induction by RIG-I.

Antiviral defense: RIG-Ing the immune system to STING.

A critical component of the innate immune response is the presence of germ line-encoded receptors capable of recognizing a wide variety of pathogen-associated molecules. One group of these receptors, the cytoplasmic RIG-I-like helicases (RLH), is involved in the induction of Type I interferon in response to viral infection. Here we discuss results of recent investigations into the initiation and transmission of signals through the RIG-I pathway.

Cytoplasmic nucleic acid sensors in antiviral immunity.

The innate immune system uses pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to sense invading microbes and initiate a rapid protective response. PRRs bind and are activated by structural motifs, such as nucleic acids or bacterial and fungal cell wall components, collectively known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns. PRRs that recognize pathogen-derived nucleic acids are present in vesicular compartments and in the cytosol of most cell types. Here, we review recent studies of these cytosolic sensors, focusing on the nature of the ligands for DNA-dependent activator of interferon (DAI)-regulatory factors, absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2), and the retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like helicase (RLH) family of receptors, the basis of ligand recognition and the signaling pathways triggered by the activation of these receptors. An increased understanding of these molecular aspects of innate immunity will guide the development of novel antiviral therapeutics.

Cooperative role of the MHR and the CA dimerization helix in the maturation of the functional retrovirus capsid.

The second helix in the C-terminal domain of retroviral capsid (CA) protein functions as the site of dimerization between subunits in capsid assembly and is believed to participate in a unique interface between Gag molecules in immature particles. This study reports isolation of two substitutions in the dimerization helix of Rous sarcoma virus CA protein that have the ability to suppress lethal defects in core maturation imposed by alterations to the major homology region (MHR) motif just upstream. Together with two previously published suppressors, these define an extended region of the dimerization helix that is unlikely to contribute directly to CA-CA contacts but whose assembly-competence may be strongly affected by conformation. The broad-spectrum suppression and temperature-sensitivity exhibited by some mutants argues that they act through modulation of protein conformation. These findings provide important biological evidence in support of a significant conformational change involving the dimerization helix and the MHR during maturation.

ELMOD2 is an Arl2 GTPase-activating protein that also acts on Arfs.

Regulatory GTPases in the Ras superfamily employ a cycle of alternating GTP binding and hydrolysis, controlled by guanine nucleotide exchange factors and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), as essential features of their actions in cells. Studies of these GAPs and guanine nucleotide exchange factors have provided important insights into our understanding of GTPase signaling and biology. Within the Ras superfamily, the Arf family is composed of 30 members in mammals, including 22 Arf-like (Arl) proteins. Much less is known about the mechanisms of cell regulation by Arls than by Arfs. We report the purification from bovine testis of an Arl2 GAP and its identity as ELMOD2, a protein with no previously described function. ELMOD2 is one of six human proteins that contain an ELMO domain, and a second member, ELMOD1, was also found to have Arl2 GAP activity. Surprisingly, ELMOD2 also exhibited GAP activity against Arf proteins even though it does not contain the canonical Arf GAP sequence signature. The broader specificity of ELMOD2, as well as the previously described role for ELMO1 and ELMO2 in linking Arf6 and Rac1 signaling, suggests that ELMO family members may play a more general role in integrating signaling pathways controlled by Arls and other GTPases.

Four ARF GAPs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have both overlapping and distinct functions.

Previous studies in yeast have revealed the presence of four proteins with a conserved, cysteine-rich, ARF GAP domain that share the ability to suppress the conditional growth defect of the arf1-3 mutant. Three of these proteins have been shown previously to be ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF) GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). We now demonstrate that the fourth also exhibits in vitro ARF GAP activity and correlates the suppressor and ARF GAP activities for all four. Because the four ARF GAP proteins are quite diverse outside the ARF GAP domain, a genetic analysis was undertaken to define the level of functional cross-talk between them. A large number of synthetic defects were observed that point to a high degree of functional overlap among the four ARF GAPs. However, several differences were also noted in the ability of each gene to suppress the synthetic defects of others and in the impact of single or combined deletions on assays of membrane traffic. We interpret these results as supportive evidence for roles of ARF GAPs in a number of distinct, essential cellular processes that include cell growth, protein secretion, endocytosis and cell cycling. The description of the specificities of the ARF GAPs for the different responses is viewed as a necessary first step in dissecting biologically relevant pathways through a functionally overlapping family of signalling proteins.

Genetic interactions link ARF1, YPT31/32 and TRS130.

A genetic screen for synthetic lethal interactions with arf1(-) identified a recessive mutation in TRS130, one of 10 components in the trafficking protein particle (TRAPP) complex (Sacher et al., 2000). As TRS130 is an essential gene, the synthetic lethal allele (trs130-101) is a novel one that requires ARF1 for viability. This allele was found to exhibit no defects in secretory function, i.e. processing of carboxypeptidase Y or invertase. YPT31 and YPT32 were identified in a subsequent screen as high-copy suppressors of arf1(-)trs130-101. Increasing the gene dosage of YPT31/32 also suppressed lethality resulting from deletion of TRS130 or TRS120 but not three other essential TRAPP subunit-encoding genes. Although unable to suppress defects in several alleles of ARF1, increasing the gene dosage of YPT31/32 suppressed the cold sensitivity of gcs1(-), an Arf GTPase-activating protein (GAP). Thus, these genetic interactions provide initial evidence for linkage of Arf and TRAPP signalling and for Ypt31/32 proteins functioning downstream of both components in the TRAPP complex and of Arf signalling via the Gcs1 Arf GAP.