Comparison of Computational Strategies for the Calculation of the Electronic Coupling in Intermolecular Energy and Electron Transport Processes.

Electronic couplings in intermolecular electron and energy transfer processes calculated by six different existing computational techniques are compared to nonorthogonal configuration interaction for fragments (NOCI-F) results. The paper addresses the calculation of the electronic coupling in diketopyrrolopyrol, tetracene, 5,5'-difluoroindigo, and benzene-Cl for hole and electron transport, as well as the local exciton and singlet fission coupling. NOCI-F provides a rigorous computational scheme to calculate these couplings, but its computational cost is rather elevated. The here-considered ab initio Frenkel-Davydov (AIFD), Dimer projection (DIPRO), transition dipole moment coupling, Michl-Smith, effective Hamiltonian, and Mulliken-Hush approaches are computationally less demanding, and the comparison with the NOCI-F results shows that the NOCI-F results in the couplings for hole and electron transport are rather accurately predicted by the more approximate schemes but that the NOCI-F exciton transfer and singlet fission couplings are more difficult to reproduce.

Understanding Trends in Molecular Bond Angles.

Trends in bond angle are identified in a systematic study of more than a thousand symmetric A2B triatomic molecules. We show that, in series where atoms A and B are each varied within a group, the following trends hold: (1) the A-B-A bond angle decreases for more polarizable central atoms B, and (2) the A-B-A angle increases for more polarizable outer atoms A. The physical underpinning is provided by the extended Debye polarizability model for the chemical bond angle, hence our present findings also serve as validation of this simple classical model. We use experimental bond angles from the literature and, where not available, we optimize molecular geometries with quantum chemical methods, with an open mind with regards to the stability of these molecules. We consider main group elements up to and including the sixth period of the periodic table.

Orbital Decomposition of the Carbon Chemical Shielding Tensor in Gold(I) N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes.

The good performance of N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs), in terms of versatility and selectivity, has called the attention of experimentalists and theoreticians attempting to understand their electronic properties. Analyses of the Au(I)-C bond in [(NHC)AuL]+/0 (L stands for a neutral or negatively charged ligand), through the Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson model and the charge displacement function, have revealed that NHC is not purely a σ-donor but may have a significant π-acceptor character. It turns out, however, that only the σ-donation bonding component strongly correlates with one specific component of the chemical shielding tensor. Here, in extension to earlier works, a current density analysis, based on the continuous transformation of the current density diamagnetic zero approach, along a series of [(NHC)AuL]+/0 complexes is presented. The shielding tensor is decomposed into orbital contributions using symmetry considerations together with a spectral analysis in terms of occupied to virtual orbital transitions. Analysis of the orbital transitions shows that the induced current density is largely influenced by rotational transitions. The orbital decomposition of the shielding tensor leads to a deeper understanding of the ligand effect on the magnetic response properties and the electronic structure of (NHC)-Au fragments. Such an orbital decomposition scheme may be extended to other magnetic properties and/or substrate-metal complexes.

Singlet Fission Rate: Optimized Packing of a Molecular Pair. Ethylene as a Model.

A procedure is described for unbiased identification of all π-electron chromophore pair geometry choices that locally maximize the rate of conversion of a singlet exciton into a singlet biexciton (triplet pair), using a simplified version of the diabatic frontier orbital model of singlet fission (SF). The resulting approximate optimal geometries provide insight and are expected to represent useful starting points for searches by more advanced methods. The general procedure is illustrated on a pair of ethylenes as the simplest model of a π-electron system, but it is applicable to pairs of much larger molecules, with dozens of non-hydrogen atoms, and not necessarily planar. We first examine the value of |TA|2, the square of the electronic matrix element for SF with initial excitation fully localized on partner A, on a grid of several billion geometries within the six-dimensional space of physically realizable possibilities. Several of the optimized pair geometries are somewhat unexpected, but all are found to follow the qualitative guidance proposed earlier. In the neighborhood of each local maximum of |TA|2, consideration of mixing with charge-transfer configurations and of excitonic interaction between partners A and B determines the SF energy balance and yields squared matrix elements |T*|2 and |T**|2 for the lower and upper excitonic states S* and S**, respectively. Assuming Boltzmann populations of these states, the geometry is further optimized to maximize k, the sum of the SF rates obtained from Marcus theory, and this reorders the suitable geometries substantially. At 87 pair geometries, the |T*|2 and |T**|2 values are compared with those obtained from high-level ab initio nonorthogonal configuration interaction calculations and found to follow the same trend. Finally, the biexciton binding energy at the optimized geometries is calculated. Altogether, 13 significant local maxima of SF rate for a pair of ethylenes are identified in the physically relevant part of space that avoids molecular interpenetration in the hard-sphere approximation. The three best geometries are twist-stacked, slip-stacked, and L-shaped. The maxima occur at the (five-dimensional) surfaces of seven six-dimensional "parent" regions of space centered at physically inaccessible geometries at which the calculated SF rate is very large but the two ethylenes interpenetrate. The results are displayed in interactive graphics. The computer code ("Simple") written for these calculations is flexible in that it permits a choice of performing the search for local maxima in six dimensions on |TA|2, |T*|2, or k. It is available as freeware at https://cloud.uochb.cas.cz/simple .

Theoretical Study of the Charge Transfer Exciton Binding Energy in Semiconductor Materials for Polymer:Fullerene-Based Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells.

Recent efforts and progress in polymer solar cell research have boosted the photovoltaic efficiency of the technology. This efficiency depends not only on the device architecture but also on the material properties. Thus, insight into the design of novel semiconductor materials is vital for the advancement of the field. This paper looks from a theoretical viewpoint into two of the factors for the design of semiconductor materials with applications to bulk heterojunction solar cells: the charge transfer exciton binding energy and the nanoscale arrangement of donor and acceptor molecules in blend systems. Being aware that the exciton dissociation of local excitons in charge transfer states initiates the charge generation process, the excited state properties of four oligomers (one donor-type: PEO-PPV; and three donor-acceptor-types: PTFB, PTB7, and PTB7-Th) and two fullerene derivatives ([60]PCBM and [70]PCBM), previously reported in the literature as having high electrical conductance, are studied. With such a study, the donor molecules, either of donor-type or donor-acceptor type, are screened as candidates for [60]PCBM- and/or [70]PCBM-based bulk heterojunctions. The charge transfer energy and charge transfer exciton binding energy of suitable donor:acceptor bulk heterojunctions, some of them not yet fabricated, are studied. Further, the charge transfer exciton binding energies of [60]PCBM- and [70]PCBM-based blends are compared. A combination of molecular dynamics simulations with calculations based on Kohn-Sham density functional theory (KS-DFT) and its time-dependent extension (KS-TDDFT) is used. An important feature of this work is that it incorporates the effect of the environment of the quantum chemical system in KS-DFT or KS-TDDFT calculations through a polarizable discrete reaction field (DRF). Our predictions in terms of the influence of the nanoscale arrangement of donor and acceptor molecules on the performance of organic solar cells indicate that bulk heterojunction morphologies for donor-acceptor-type oligomers lead to their lowest excited states having charge transfer character. Further, we find that in terms of favorable charge transfer exciton binding energy, the PTB7-Th:[70]PCBM blends outperform the other blends.

Structure and photophysics of indigoids for singlet fission: Cibalackrot.

We report an investigation of structure and photophysics of thin layers of cibalackrot, a sturdy dye derived from indigo by double annulation at the central double bond. Evaporated layers contain up to three phases, two crystalline and one amorphous. Relative amounts of all three have been determined by a combination of X-ray diffraction and FT-IR reflectance spectroscopy. Initially, excited singlet state rapidly produces a high yield of a transient intermediate whose spectral properties are compatible with charge-transfer nature. This intermediate more slowly converts to a significant yield of triplet, which, however, does not exceed 100% and may well be produced by intersystem crossing rather than singlet fission. The yields were determined by transient absorption spectroscopy and corrected for effects of partial sample alignment by a simple generally applicable procedure. Formation of excimers was also observed. In order to obtain guidance for improving molecular packing by a minor structural modification, calculations by a simplified frontier orbital method were used to find all local maxima of singlet fission rate as a function of geometry of a molecular pair. The method was tested at 48 maxima by comparison with the ab initio Frenkel-Davydov exciton model.

The magnetic fingerprint of dithiazolyl-based molecule magnets.

Magnetic bistability in organic-radical based materials has attracted significant interest due to its potential application in electronic devices. The first-principles bottom-up study herein presented aims at elucidating the key factors behind the different magnetic response of the low and high temperature phases of four different switchable dithiazolyl (DTA)-based compounds. The drastic change in the magnetic response upon spin transition is always due to the changes in the JAB magnetic interactions between adjacent radicals along the π-stacks of the crystal, which in turn are driven mostly by the changes in the interplanar distance and degree of lateral slippage, according to the interpretation of a series of magneto-structural correlation maps. Furthermore, specific geometrical dispositions have been recognized as a ferromagnetic fingerprint in such correlations. Our results thus show that an appropriate substitution of the chemical skeleton attached to the DTA ring could give rise to new organic materials with dominant ferromagnetic interactions.

Can the Dielectric Constant of Fullerene Derivatives Be Enhanced by Side-Chain Manipulation? A Predictive First-Principles Computational Study.

The low efficiency of organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices has often been attributed to the strong Coulombic interactions between the electron and hole, impeding the charge separation process. Recently, it has been argued that by increasing the dielectric constant of materials used in OPVs, this strong interaction could be screened. In this work, we report the application of periodic density functional theory together with the coupled perturbed Kohn-Sham method to calculate the electronic contribution to the dielectric constant for fullerene C60 derivatives, a ubiquitous class of molecules in the field of OPVs. The results show good agreement with experimental data when available and also reveal an important undesirable outcome when manipulating the side chain to maximize the static dielectric constant: in all cases, the electronic contribution to the dielectric constant decreases as the side chain increases in size. This information should encourage both theoreticians and experimentalists to further investigate the relevance of contributions to the dielectric constant from slower processes like vibrations and dipolar reorientations for facilitating the charge separation, because electronically, enlarging the side chain of conventional fullerene derivatives only lowers the dielectric constant, and consequently, their electronic dielectric constant is upper bound by the one of C60.

Theoretical Study of the Light-Induced Spin Crossover Mechanism in [Fe(mtz)6]2+ and [Fe(phen)3]2.

The deactivation pathway of the light-induced spin crossover process in two Fe(II) complexes has been studied by combining density functional theory calculations for the geometries and the normal vibrational modes and highly correlated wave function methods for the energies and spin-orbit coupling effects. For the two systems considered, the mechanism of the photoinduced conversion from the low-spin singlet to the high-spin quintet state implies two intersystem crossings through intermediate triplet states. However, for the [Fe(mtz)6]2+ complex, the process occurs within few picoseconds and involves uniquely metal-centered electronic states, whereas for the [Fe(phen)3]2+ system the deactivation channel involves both metal to ligand charge transfer and metal-centered states and takes place in a femtosecond time scale.

Promising Strategy To Improve Charge Separation in Organic Photovoltaics: Installing Permanent Dipoles in PCBM Analogues.

A multidisciplinary approach involving organic synthesis and theoretical chemistry was applied to investigate a promising strategy to improve charge separation in organic photovoltaics: installing permanent dipoles in fullerene derivatives. First, a PCBM analogue with a permanent dipole in the side chain (PCBDN) and its reference analogue without a permanent dipole (PCBBz) were successfully synthesized and characterized. Second, a multiscale modeling approach was applied to investigate if a PCBDN environment around a central donor-acceptor complex indeed facilitates charge separation. Alignment of the embedding dipoles in response to charges present on the central donor-acceptor complex enhances charge separation. The good correspondence between experimentally and theoretically determined electronic and optical properties of PCBDN, PCBBz, and PCBM indicates that the theoretical analysis of the embedding effects of these molecules gives a reliable expectation for their influence on the charge separation process at a microscopic scale in a real device. This work suggests the following strategies to improve charge separation in organic photovoltaics: installing permanent dipoles in PCBM analogues and tuning the concentration of these molecules in an organic donor/acceptor blend.

A Comparative Study of Molecular Structure, pKa, Lipophilicity, Solubility, Absorption and Polar Surface Area of Some Antiplatelet Drugs.

Theoretical chemistry methods have been used to study the molecular properties of antiplatelet agents (ticlopidine, clopidogrel, prasugrel, elinogrel, ticagrelor and cangrelor) and several thiol-containing active metabolites. The geometries and energies of most stable conformers of these drugs have been computed at the Becke3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) level of density functional theory. Computed dissociation constants show that the active metabolites of prodrugs (ticlopidine, clopidogrel and prasugrel) and drugs elinogrel and cangrelor are completely ionized at pH 7.4. Both ticagrelor and its active metabolite are present at pH = 7.4 in neutral undissociated form. The thienopyridine prodrugs ticlopidine, clopidogrel and prasugrel are lipophilic and insoluble in water. Their lipophilicity is very high (about 2.5-3.5 logP values). The polar surface area, with regard to the structurally-heterogeneous character of these antiplatelet drugs, is from very large interval of values of 3-255 Ų. Thienopyridine prodrugs, like ticlopidine, clopidogrel and prasugrel, with the lowest polar surface area (PSA) values, exhibit the largest absorption. A high value of polar surface area (PSA) of cangrelor (255 Ų) results in substantial worsening of the absorption in comparison with thienopyridine drugs.

Theoretical Study of Molecular Structure and Physicochemical Properties of Novel Factor Xa Inhibitors and Dual Factor Xa and Factor IIa Inhibitors.

The geometries and energies of factor Xa inhibitors edoxaban, eribaxaban, fidexaban, darexaban, letaxaban, and the dual factor Xa and thrombin inhibitors tanogitran and SAR107375 in both the gas-phase and aqueous solution were studied using the Becke3LYP/6-31++G(d,p) or Grimme's B97D/6-31++G(d,p) method. The fully optimized conformers of these anticoagulants show a characteristic l-shape structure, and the water had a remarkable effect on the equilibrium geometry. According to the calculated pKa values eribaxaban and letaxaban are in neutral undissociated form at pH 7.4, while fidexaban and tanogitran exist as zwitterionic structures. The lipophilicity of the inhibitors studied lies within a large range of log P between 1 and 4. The dual inhibitor SAR107375 represents an improvement in structural, physicochemical and pharmacokinetic characteristics over tanogitran. At blood pH, SAR107375 predominantly exists in neutral form. In contrast with tanogitran, it is better absorbed and more lipophilic and active after oral application.

Periodic Hartree-Fock and hybrid density functional calculations on the metallic and the insulating phase of (EDO-TTF)2PF6.

The insulating and conducting phases of (EDO-TTF)2PF6 were studied by all electron, periodic Hartree-Fock and hybrid density functional calculations. Electronic properties, such as the electronic band structure, the density of states and the Fermi surface are discussed in relation to the metal-insulator transition in this material. The nature of conduction is confirmed in both phases from their band structures and density of states. The hybrid DFT band gaps are in good agreement with experiment. Interactions are discussed on the basis of band dispersion in the inter-stack, intra-stack and inter-sheet directions. We discuss the phase transition in terms of the Peierls mechanism and our results fully support this view.

Non-innocent side-chains with dipole moments in organic solar cells improve charge separation.

Providing sustainable energy is one of the biggest challenges nowadays. An attractive answer is the use of organic solar cells to capture solar energy. Recently a promising route to increase their efficiency has been suggested: developing new organic materials with a high dielectric constant. This solution focuses on lowering the coulomb attraction between electrons and holes, thereby increasing the yield of free charges. In here, we demonstrate from a theoretical point of view that incorporation of dipole moments in organic materials indeed lowers the coulomb attraction. A combination of molecular dynamics simulations for modelling the blend and ab initio quantum chemical calculations to study specific regions was performed. This approach gives predictive insight in the suitability of new materials for application in organic solar cells. In addition to all requirements that make conjugated polymers suitable for application in organic solar cells, this study demonstrates the importance of large dipole moments in polymer side-chains.

Computational determination of the dominant triplet population mechanism in photoexcited benzophenone.

In benzophenone, intersystem crossing occurs efficiently between the S1(nπ*) state and the T1 state of dominant nπ* character, leading to excited triplet states after photoexcitation. The transition mechanism between S1(nπ*) and T1 is still a matter of debate, despite several experimental studies. Quantum mechanical calculations have been performed in order to assess the relative efficiencies of previously proposed mechanisms, in particular, the direct S1→ T1 and indirect S1→ T2(ππ*) → T1 ones. Multiconfigurational wave function based methods are used to discuss the nature of the relevant states and also to determine minimum energy paths and conical intersections. It is found that the T1 state has a mixed nπ*/ππ* character and that the T2(ππ*) state acts as an intermediate state between the S1 and T1 states. This result is in line with recent experiments, which suggested a two-step kinetic model to populate the phosphorescent state after photoexcitation [Aloïse et al., J. Phys. Chem. A, 2008, 112, 224-231].

Computational approach to the study of thermal spin crossover phenomena.

The key parameters associated to the thermally induced spin crossover process have been calculated for a series of Fe(II) complexes with mono-, bi-, and tridentate ligands. Combination of density functional theory calculations for the geometries and for normal vibrational modes, and highly correlated wave function methods for the energies, allows us to accurately compute the entropy variation associated to the spin transition and the zero-point corrected energy difference between the low- and high-spin states. From these values, the transition temperature, T1/2, is estimated for different compounds.

Ultrafast deactivation mechanism of the excited singlet in the light-induced spin crossover of [Fe(2,2'-bipyridine)3]2+.

The mechanism of the light-induced spin crossover of the [Fe(bpy)3](2+) complex (bpy=2,2'-bipyridine) has been studied by combining accurate electronic-structure calculations and time-dependent approaches to calculate intersystem-crossing rates. We investigate how the initially excited metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) singlet state deactivates to the final metastable high-spin state. Although ultrafast X-ray free-electron spectroscopy has established that the total timescale of this process is on the order of a few tenths of a picosecond, the details of the mechanisms still remain unclear. We determine all the intermediate electronic states along the pathway from low spin to high spin and give estimates for the deactivation times of the different stages. The calculations result in a total deactivation time on the same order of magnitude as the experimentally determined rate and indicate that the complex can reach the final high-spin state by means of different deactivation channels. The optically populated excited singlet state rapidly decays to a triplet state with an Fe d(6)(t(2g)(5)e(g)(1)) configuration either directly or by means of a triplet MLCT state. This triplet ligand-field state could in principle decay directly to the final quintet state, but a much faster channel is provided by internal conversion to a lower-lying triplet state and subsequent intersystem crossing to the high-spin state. The deactivation rate to the low-spin ground state is much smaller, which is in line with the large quantum yield reported for the process.

H2S-mediated thermal and photochemical methane activation.

Sustainable, low-temperature methods for natural gas activation are critical in addressing current and foreseeable energy and hydrocarbon feedstock needs. Large portions of natural gas resources are still too expensive to process due to their high content of hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) mixed with methane, deemed altogether as sub-quality or "sour" gas. We propose a unique method of activation to form a mixture of sulfur-containing hydrocarbon intermediates, CH3SH and CH3SCH3 , and an energy carrier such as H2. For this purpose, we investigated the H2S-mediated methane activation to form a reactive CH3SH species by means of direct photolysis of sub-quality natural gas. Photoexcitation of hydrogen sulfide in the CH4 + H2S complex resulted in a barrierless relaxation by a conical intersection to form a ground-state CH3SH + H2 complex. The resulting CH3SH could further be coupled over acidic catalysts to form higher hydrocarbons, and the resulting H2 used as a fuel. This process is very different from conventional thermal or radical-based processes and can be driven photolytically at low temperatures, with enhanced control over the conditions currently used in industrial oxidative natural gas activation. Finally, the proposed process is CO2 neutral, as opposed to the current industrial steam methane reforming (SMR).