Optimization of quenched fluorescent peptide substrates of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro main protease (Mpro) from proteomic identification of P6-P6' active site specificity.

SARS-CoV-2 3C-like main protease (3CLpro) is essential for protein excision from the viral polyprotein. 3CLpro inhibitor drug development to block SARS-CoV-2 replication focuses on the catalytic non-prime (P) side for specificity and potency, but the importance of the prime (P') side in substrate specificity and for drug development remains underappreciated. We determined the P6-P6' specificity for 3CLpro from >800 cleavage sites that we identified using Proteomic Identification of Cleavage site Specificity (PICS). Cleavage occurred after the canonical P1-Gln and non-canonical P1-His and P1-Met residues. Moreover, P3 showed a preference for Arg/Lys and P3' for His. Essential H-bonds between the N-terminal Ser1 of protomer-B in 3CLpro dimers form with P1-His, but not with P1-Met. Nonetheless, cleavage occurs at P1-Met456 in native MAP4K5. Elevated reactive oxygen species in SARS-CoV-2 infection oxidize methionines. Molecular simulations revealed P1-MetOX forms an H-bond with Ser1 and notably, strong positive cooperativity between P1-Met with P3'-His was revealed, which enhanced peptide-cleavage rates. The highly plastic S3' subsite accommodates P3'-His that displays stabilizing backbone H-bonds with Thr25 lying central in a "'threonine trio" (Thr24-Thr25-Thr26) in the P'-binding domain I. Molecular docking simulations unveiled structure-activity relationships impacting 3CLpro-substrate interactions, and the role of these structural determinants was confirmed by MALDI-TOF-MS cleavage assays of P1'- and P3'-positional scanning peptide libraries carrying a 2nd optimal cut-site as an internal positive control. These data informed the design of two new and highly soluble 3CLproquenched-fluorescent peptide substrates for improved FRET monitoring of 3CLpro activity with 15× improved sensitivity over current assays.IMPORTANCEFrom global proteomics identification of >800 cleavage sites, we characterized the P6-P6' active site specificity of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro using proteome-derived peptide library screens, molecular modeling simulations, and focussed positional peptide libraries. In P1', we show that alanine and serine are cleaved 3× faster than glycine and the hydrophobic small amino acids Leu, Ile, or Val prevent cleavage of otherwise optimal non-prime sequences. In characterizing non-canonical non-prime P1 specificity, we explored the unusual P1-Met specificity, discovering enhanced cleavage when in the oxidized state (P1-MetOX). We unveiled unexpected amino acid cooperativity at P1-Met with P3'-His and noncanonical P1-His with P2-Phe, and the importance of the threonine trio (Thr24-Thr25-Thr26) in the prime side binding domain I in defining prime side binding in SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro. From these analyses, we rationally designed quenched-fluorescence natural amino acid peptide substrates with >15× improved sensitivity and high peptide solubility, facilitating handling and application for screening of new antiviral drugs.

Moonlighting matrix metalloproteinase substrates: Enhancement of proinflammatory functions of extracellular tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase upon cleavage.

Tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase ligates tyrosine to its cognate tRNA in the cytoplasm, but it can also be secreted through a noncanonical pathway. We found that extracellular tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (YRS) exhibited proinflammatory activities. In addition to acting as a monocyte/macrophage chemoattractant, YRS initiated signaling through Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) resulting in NF-κB activation and release of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and multiple chemokines, including MIP-1α/ß, CXCL8 (IL8), and CXCL1 (KC) from THP1 monocyte and peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived macrophages. Furthermore, YRS up-regulated matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity in a TNFα-dependent manner in M0 macrophages. Because MMPs process a variety of intracellular proteins that also exhibit extracellular moonlighting functions, we profiled 10 MMPs for YRS cleavage and identified 55 cleavage sites by amino-terminal oriented mass spectrometry of substrates (ATOMS) positional proteomics and Edman degradation. Stable proteoforms resulted from cleavages near the start of the YRS C-terminal EMAPII domain. All of the MMPs tested cleaved at ADS386↓387LYV and VSG405↓406LVQ, generating 43- and 45-kDa fragments. The highest catalytic efficiency for YRS was demonstrated by MMP7, which is highly expressed by monocytes and macrophages, and by neutrophil-specific MMP8. MMP-cleaved YRS enhanced TLR2 signaling, increased TNFα secretion from macrophages, and amplified monocyte/macrophage chemotaxis compared with unprocessed YRS. The cleavage of YRS by MMP8, but not MMP7, was inhibited by tyrosine, a substrate of the YRS aminoacylation reaction. Overall, the proinflammatory activity of YRS is enhanced by MMP cleavage, which we suggest forms a feed-forward mechanism to promote inflammation.

Matrix metalloproteinases inactivate the proinflammatory functions of secreted moonlighting tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase.

Tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (WRS) is a cytosolic aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase essential for protein synthesis. WRS is also one of a growing number of intracellular proteins that are attributed distinct noncanonical "moonlighting" functions in the extracellular milieu. Moonlighting aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases regulate processes such as inflammation, but how these multifunctional enzymes are themselves regulated remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that WRS is secreted from human macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells in response to the proinflammatory cytokine interferon γ (IFNγ). WRS signaled primarily through Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) in macrophages, leading to phosphorylation of the p65 subunit of NF-κB with associated loss of NF-κB inhibitor α (IκB-α) protein. This signaling initiated secretion of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and CXCL8 (IL8) from macrophages. We also demonstrated that WRS is a potent monocyte chemoattractant. Of note, WRS increased matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity in the conditioned medium of macrophages in a TNFα-dependent manner. Using purified recombinant proteins and LC-MS/MS to identify proteolytic cleavage sites, we demonstrated that multiple MMPs, but primarily macrophage MMP7 and neutrophil MMP8, cleave secreted WRS at several sites. Loss of the WHEP domain following cleavage at Met48 generated a WRS proteoform that also results from alternative splicing, designated Δ1-47 WRS. The MMP-cleaved WRS lacked TLR signaling and proinflammatory activities. Thus, our results suggest that moonlighting WRS promotes IFNγ proinflammatory activities, and these responses can be dampened by MMPs.

Kallikrein-Related Peptidase 14 Activates Zymogens of Membrane Type Matrix Metalloproteinases (MT-MMPs)-A CleavEx Based Analysis.

Kallikrein-related peptidases (KLKs) and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are secretory proteinases known to proteolytically process components of the extracellular matrix, modulating the pericellular environment in physiology and in pathologies. The interconnection between these families remains elusive. To assess the cross-activation of these families, we developed a peptide, fusion protein-based exposition system (Cleavage of exposed amino acid sequences, CleavEx) aiming at investigating the potential of KLK14 to recognize and hydrolyze proMMP sequences. Initial assessment identified ten MMP activation domain sequences which were validated by Edman degradation. The analysis revealed that membrane-type MMPs (MT-MMPs) are targeted by KLK14 for activation. Correspondingly, proMMP14-17 were investigated in vitro and found to be effectively processed by KLK14. Again, the expected neo-N-termini of the activated MT-MMPs was confirmed by Edman degradation. The effectiveness of proMMP activation was analyzed by gelatin zymography, confirming the release of fully active, mature MT-MMPs upon KLK14 treatment. Lastly, MMP14 was shown to be processed on the cell surface by KLK14 using murine fibroblasts overexpressing human MMP14. Herein, we propose KLK14-mediated selective activation of cell-membrane located MT-MMPs as an additional layer of their regulation. As both, KLKs and MT-MMPs, are implicated in cancer, their cross-activation may constitute an important factor in tumor progression and metastasis.

Protease-Inhibitor Interaction Predictions: Lessons on the Complexity of Protein-Protein Interactions.

Protein interactions shape proteome function and thus biology. Identification of protein interactions is a major goal in molecular biology, but biochemical methods, although improving, remain limited in coverage and accuracy. Whereas computational predictions can guide biochemical experiments, low validation rates of predictions remain a major limitation. Here, we investigated computational methods in the prediction of a specific type of interaction, the inhibitory interactions between proteases and their inhibitors. Proteases generate thousands of proteoforms that dynamically shape the functional state of proteomes. Despite the important regulatory role of proteases, knowledge of their inhibitors remains largely incomplete with the vast majority of proteases lacking an annotated inhibitor. To link inhibitors to their target proteases on a large scale, we applied computational methods to predict inhibitory interactions between proteases and their inhibitors based on complementary data, including coexpression, phylogenetic similarity, structural information, co-annotation, and colocalization, and also surveyed general protein interaction networks for potential inhibitory interactions. In testing nine predicted interactions biochemically, we validated the inhibition of kallikrein 5 by serpin B12. Despite the use of a wide array of complementary data, we found a high false positive rate of computational predictions in biochemical follow-up. Based on a protease-specific definition of true negatives derived from the biochemical classification of proteases and inhibitors, we analyzed prediction accuracy of individual features, thereby we identified feature-specific limitations, which also affected general protein interaction prediction methods. Interestingly, proteases were often not coexpressed with most of their functional inhibitors, contrary to what is commonly assumed and extrapolated predominantly from cell culture experiments. Predictions of inhibitory interactions were indeed more challenging than predictions of nonproteolytic and noninhibitory interactions. In summary, we describe a novel and well-defined but difficult protein interaction prediction task and thereby highlight limitations of computational interaction prediction methods.

The Role of MMP8 in Cancer: A Systematic Review.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have traditionally been considered as tumor promoting enzymes as they degrade extracellular matrix components, thus increasing the invasion of cancer cells. It has become evident, however, that MMPs can also cleave and alter the function of various non-matrix bioactive molecules, leading to both tumor promoting and suppressive effects. We applied systematic review guidelines to study MMP8 in cancer including the use of MMP8 as a prognostic factor or as a target/anti-target in cancer treatment, and its molecular mechanisms. A total of 171 articles met the inclusion criteria. The collective evidence reveals that in breast, skin and oral tongue cancer, MMP8 inhibits cancer cell invasion and proliferation, and protects patients from metastasis via cleavage of non-structural substrates. Conversely, in liver and gastric cancers, high levels of MMP8 worsen the prognosis. Expression and genetic alterations of MMP8 can be used as a prognostic factor by examination of the tumor and serum/plasma. We conclude, that MMP8 has differing effects on cancers depending on their tissue of origin. The use of MMP8 as a prognostic factor alone, or with other factors, seems to have potential. The molecular mechanisms of MMP8 in cancer further emphasize its role as an important regulator of bioactive molecules.

New intracellular activities of matrix metalloproteinases shine in the moonlight.

Adaption of a single protein to perform multiple independent functions facilitates functional plasticity of the proteome allowing a limited number of protein-coding genes to perform a multitude of cellular processes. Multifunctionality is achievable by post-translational modifications and by modulating subcellular localization. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), classically viewed as degraders of the extracellular matrix (ECM) responsible for matrix protein turnover, are more recently recognized as regulators of a range of extracellular bioactive molecules including chemokines, cytokines, and their binders. However, growing evidence has convincingly identified select MMPs in intracellular compartments with unexpected physiological and pathological roles. Intracellular MMPs have both proteolytic and non-proteolytic functions, including signal transduction and transcription factor activity thereby challenging their traditional designation as extracellular proteases. This review highlights current knowledge of subcellular location and activity of these "moonlighting" MMPs. Intracellular roles herald a new era of MMP research, rejuvenating interest in targeting these proteases in therapeutic strategies. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Matrix Metalloproteinases edited by Rafael Fridman.

Matrix metalloproteinase processing of signaling molecules to regulate inflammation.

Inflammation is a complex and highly regulated process that facilitates the clearance of pathogens and mediates tissue repair. Failure to resolve inflammation can lead to chronic inflammatory diseases such as periodontitis. Matrix metalloproteinases are generally thought to be detrimental in disease because degradation of extracellular matrix contributes to pathology. However, proteomic techniques (degradomics) are revealing that matrix metalloproteinases process a diverse array of substrates and therefore have a broad range of functions. Many matrix metalloproteinase substrates modulate inflammation and hence, by processing these proteins, matrix metalloproteinases can orchestrate the inflammatory response.

Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases are proteolytic targets of matrix metalloproteinase 9.

Extracellular proteolysis and turnover are core processes of tissue homeostasis. The predominant matrix-degrading enzymes are members of the Matrix Metalloproteinase (MMP) family. MMPs extensively degrade core matrix components in addition to processing a range of other factors in the extracellular, plasma membrane, and intracellular compartments. The proteolytic activity of MMPs is modulated by the Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteinases (TIMPs), a family of four multi-functional matrisome proteins with extensively characterized MMP inhibitory functions. Thus, a well-regulated balance between MMP activity and TIMP levels has been described as critical for healthy tissue homeostasis, and this balance can be chronically disturbed in pathological processes. The relationship between MMPs and TIMPs is complex and lacks the constraints of a typical enzyme-inhibitor relationship due to secondary interactions between various MMPs (specifically gelatinases) and TIMP family members. We illustrate a new complexity in this system by describing how MMP9 can cleave members of the TIMP family when in molar excess. Proteolytic processing of TIMPs can generate functionally altered peptides with potentially novel attributes. We demonstrate here that all TIMPs are cleaved at their C-terminal tails by a molar excess of MMP9. This processing removes the N-glycosylation site for TIMP3 and prevents the TIMP2 interaction with latent proMMP2, a prerequisite for cell surface MMP14-mediated activation of proMMP2. TIMP2/4 are further cleaved producing ∼14 kDa N-terminal proteins linked to a smaller C-terminal domain through residual disulfide bridges. These cleaved TIMP2/4 complexes show perturbed MMP inhibitory activity, illustrating that MMP9 may bear a particularly prominent influence upon the TIMP:MMP balance in tissues.

A statistics-based platform for quantitative N-terminome analysis and identification of protease cleavage products.

Terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates (TAILS), our recently introduced platform for quantitative N-terminome analysis, enables wide dynamic range identification of original mature protein N-termini and protease cleavage products. Modifying TAILS by use of isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ)-like labels for quantification together with a robust statistical classifier derived from experimental protease cleavage data, we report reliable and statistically valid identification of proteolytic events in complex biological systems in MS2 mode. The statistical classifier is supported by a novel parameter evaluating ion intensity-dependent quantification confidences of single peptide quantifications, the quantification confidence factor (QCF). Furthermore, the isoform assignment score (IAS) is introduced, a new scoring system for the evaluation of single peptide-to-protein assignments based on high confidence protein identifications in the same sample prior to negative selection enrichment of N-terminal peptides. By these approaches, we identified and validated, in addition to known substrates, low abundance novel bioactive MMP-2 targets including the plasminogen receptor S100A10 (p11) and the proinflammatory cytokine proEMAP/p43 that were previously undescribed.

Multiplex N-terminome analysis of MMP-2 and MMP-9 substrate degradomes by iTRAQ-TAILS quantitative proteomics.

Proteolysis is a major protein posttranslational modification that, by altering protein structure, affects protein function and, by truncating the protein sequence, alters peptide signatures of proteins analyzed by proteomics. To identify such modified and shortened protease-generated neo-N-termini on a proteome-wide basis, we developed a whole protein isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) labeling method that simultaneously labels and blocks all primary amines including protein N- termini and lysine side chains. Blocking lysines limits trypsin cleavage to arginine, which effectively elongates the proteolytically truncated peptides for improved MS/MS analysis and peptide identification. Incorporating iTRAQ whole protein labeling with terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates (iTRAQ-TAILS) to enrich the N-terminome by negative selection of the blocked mature original N-termini and neo-N-termini has many advantages. It enables simultaneous characterization of the natural N-termini of proteins, their N-terminal modifications, and proteolysis product and cleavage site identification. Furthermore, iTRAQ-TAILS also enables multiplex N-terminomics analysis of up to eight samples and allows for quantification in MS2 mode, thus preventing an increase in spectral complexity and extending proteome coverage by signal amplification of low abundance proteins. We compared the substrate degradomes of two closely related matrix metalloproteinases, MMP-2 (gelatinase A) and MMP-9 (gelatinase B), in fibroblast secreted proteins. Among 3,152 unique N-terminal peptides identified corresponding to 1,054 proteins, we detected 201 cleavage products for MMP-2 and unexpectedly only 19 for the homologous MMP-9 under identical conditions. Novel substrates identified and biochemically validated include insulin-like growth factor binding protein-4, complement C1r component A, galectin-1, dickkopf-related protein-3, and thrombospondin-2. Hence, N-terminomics analyses using iTRAQ-TAILS links gelatinases with new mechanisms of action in angiogenesis and reveals unpredicted restrictions in substrate repertoires for these two very similar proteases.

Mechanistic insights into COVID-19 by global analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro substrate degradome.

The main viral protease (3CLpro) is indispensable for SARS-CoV-2 replication. We delineate the human protein substrate landscape of 3CLpro by TAILS substrate-targeted N-terminomics. We identify more than 100 substrates in human lung and kidney cells supported by analyses of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells. Enzyme kinetics and molecular docking simulations of 3CLpro engaging substrates reveal how noncanonical cleavage sites, which diverge from SARS-CoV, guide substrate specificity. Cleaving the interactors of essential effector proteins, effectively stranding them from their binding partners, amplifies the consequences of proteolysis. We show that 3CLpro targets the Hippo pathway, including inactivation of MAP4K5, and key effectors of transcription, mRNA processing, and translation. We demonstrate that Spike glycoprotein directly binds galectin-8, with galectin-8 cleavage disengaging CALCOCO2/NDP52 to decouple antiviral-autophagy. Indeed, in post-mortem COVID-19 lung samples, NDP52 rarely colocalizes with galectin-8, unlike in healthy lungs. The 3CLpro substrate degradome establishes a foundational substrate atlas to accelerate exploration of SARS-CoV-2 pathology and drug design.

Metadegradomics: toward in vivo quantitative degradomics of proteolytic post-translational modifications of the cancer proteome.

Post-translational modifications enable extra layers of control of the proteome, and perhaps the most important is proteolysis, a major irreversible modification affecting every protein. The intersection of the protease web with a proteome sculpts that proteome, dynamically modifying its state and function. Protease expression is distorted in cancer, so perturbing signaling pathways and the secretome of the tumor and reactive stromal cells. Indeed many cancer biomarkers are stable proteolytic fragments. It is crucial to determine which proteases contribute to the pathology versus their roles in homeostasis and in mitigating cancer. Thus the full substrate repertoire of a protease, termed the substrate degradome, must be deciphered to define protease function and to identify drug targets. Degradomics has been used to identify many substrates of matrix metalloproteinases that are important proteases in cancer. Here we review recent degradomics technologies that allow for the broadly applicable identification and quantification of proteases (the protease degradome) and their activity state, substrates, and interactors. Quantitative proteomics using stable isotope labeling, such as ICAT, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ), and stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC), can reveal protease substrates by taking advantage of the natural compartmentalization of membrane proteins that are shed into the extracellular space. Identifying the actual cleavage sites in a complex proteome relies on positional proteomics and utilizes selection strategies to enrich for protease-generated neo-N termini of proteins. In so doing, important functional information is generated. Finally protease substrates and interactors can be identified by interactomics based on affinity purification of protease complexes using exosite scanning and inactive catalytic domain capture strategies followed by mass spectrometry analysis. At the global level, the N terminome analysis of whole communities of proteases in tissues and organs in vivo provides a full scale understanding of the protease web and the web-sculpted proteome, so defining metadegradomics.

Updated biological roles for matrix metalloproteinases and new "intracellular" substrates revealed by degradomics.

Shotgun proteomics techniques are conceptually unbiased, but data interpretation and follow-up experiments are often constrained by dogma, established beliefs that are accepted without question, that can dilute the power of proteomics and hinder scientific progress. Proteomics and degradomics, the characterization of all proteases, inhibitors, and protease substrates by genomic and proteomic techniques, have exponentially expanded the known substrate repertoire of the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), even to include intracellular proteins with newly recognized extracellular functions. Thus, the dogma that MMPs are dowdy degraders of extracellular matrix has been resolutely overturned, and the metamorphosis of MMPs into modulators of multiple signaling pathways has been facilitated. Here we review progress made in the field of degradomics and present a current view of the MMP degradome.

Membrane protease degradomics: proteomic identification and quantification of cell surface protease substrates.

The modification of cell surface proteins by plasma membrane and soluble proteases is important for physiological and pathological processes. Methods to identify shed and soluble substrates are crucial to further define the substrate repertoire, termed the substrate degradome, of individual proteases. Identifying protease substrates is essential to elucidate protease function and involvement in different homeostatic and disease pathways. This characterisation is also crucial for drug target identification and validation, which would then allow the rational design of specific targeted inhibitors for therapeutic intervention. We describe two methods for identifying and quantifying shed cell surface protease targets in cultured cells utilising Isotope-Coded Affinity Tags (ICAT) and Isobaric Tags for Relative and Absolute Quantification (iTRAQ). As a model system to develop these techniques, we chose a cell-membrane expressed matrix metalloproteinase, MMP-14, but the concepts can be applied to proteases of other classes. By over-expression, or conversely inhibition, of a particular protease with careful selection of control conditions (e.g. vector or inactive protease) and differential labelling, shed proteins can be identified and quantified by mass spectrometry (MS), MS/MS fragmentation and database searching.

Hydroxamic Acid Inhibitors Provide Cross-Species Inhibition of Plasmodium M1 and M17 Aminopeptidases.

There is an urgent clinical need for antimalarial compounds that target malaria caused by both Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. The M1 and M17 metalloexopeptidases play key roles in Plasmodium hemoglobin digestion and are validated drug targets. We used a multitarget strategy to rationally design inhibitors capable of potent inhibition of the M1 and M17 aminopeptidases from both P. falciparum ( Pf-M1 and Pf-M17) and P. vivax ( Pv-M1 and Pv-M17). The novel chemical series contains a hydroxamic acid zinc binding group to coordinate catalytic zinc ion/s, and a variety of hydrophobic groups to probe the S1' pockets of the four target enzymes. Structural characterization by cocrystallization showed that selected compounds utilize new and unexpected binding modes; most notably, compounds substituted with bulky hydrophobic substituents displace the Pf-M17 catalytic zinc ion. Excitingly, key compounds of the series potently inhibit all four molecular targets and show antimalarial activity comparable to current clinical candidates.

Novel Human Aminopeptidase N Inhibitors: Discovery and Optimization of Subsite Binding Interactions.

Aminopeptidase N (APN/CD13) is a zinc-dependent M1 aminopeptidase that contributes to cancer progression by promoting angiogenesis, metastasis, and tumor invasion. We have previously identified hydroxamic acid-containing analogues that are potent inhibitors of the APN homologue from the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum M1 aminopeptidase (PfA-M1). Herein, we describe the rationale that underpins the repurposing of PfA-M1 inhibitors as novel APN inhibitors. A series of novel hydroxamic acid analogues were developed using a structure-based design approach and evaluated their inhibition activities against APN. N-(2-(Hydroxyamino)-2-oxo-1-(3',4',5'-trifluoro-[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-yl)ethyl)-4-(methylsulfonamido)benzamide (6ad) proved to be an extremely potent inhibitor of APN activity in vitro, selective against other zinc-dependent enzymes such as matrix metalloproteases, and possessed limited cytotoxicity against Ad293 cells and favorable physicochemical and metabolic stability properties. The combined results indicate that compound 6ad may be a useful lead for the development of anticancer agents.

HIV-induced metalloproteinase processing of the chemokine stromal cell derived factor-1 causes neurodegeneration.

The mechanisms of neurodegeneration that result in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 dementia have not yet been identified. Here, we report that HIV-infected macrophages secrete the zymogen matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), which is activated by exposure to MT1-MMP on neurons. Stromal cell-derived factor 1 alpha (SDF-1), a chemokine overexpressed by astrocytes during HIV infection, was converted to a highly neurotoxic protein after precise proteolytic processing by active MMP-2, which removed the N-terminal tetrapeptide. Implantation of cleaved SDF-1(5-67) into the basal ganglia of mice resulted in neuronal death and inflammation with ensuing neurobehavioral deficits that were abrogated by neutralizing antibodies to SDF-1 and an MMP inhibitor drug. Hence, this study identifies a new in vivo neurotoxic pathway in which cleavage of a chemokine by an induced metalloproteinase results in neuronal apoptosis that leads to neurodegeneration.

Aging-associated modifications of collagen affect its degradation by matrix metalloproteinases.

The natural aging process and various pathologies correlate with alterations in the composition and the structural and mechanical integrity of the connective tissue. Collagens represent the most abundant matrix proteins and provide for the overall stiffness and resilience of tissues. The structural changes of collagens and their susceptibility to degradation are associated with skin wrinkling, bone and cartilage deterioration, as well as cardiovascular and respiratory malfunctions. Here, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are major contributors to tissue remodeling and collagen degradation. During aging, collagens are modified by mineralization, accumulation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), and the depletion of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which affect fiber stability and their susceptibility to MMP-mediated degradation. We found a reduced collagenolysis in mineralized and AGE-modified collagen fibers when compared to native fibrillar collagen. GAGs had no effect on MMP-mediated degradation of collagen. In general, MMP digestion led to a reduction in the mechanical strength of native and modified collagen fibers. Successive fiber degradation with MMPs and the cysteine-dependent collagenase, cathepsin K (CatK), resulted in their complete degradation. In contrast, MMP-generated fragments were not or only poorly cleaved by non-collagenolytic cathepsins such as cathepsin V (CatV). In conclusion, our data indicate that aging and disease-associated collagen modifications reduce tissue remodeling by MMPs and decrease the structural and mechanic integrity of collagen fibers, which both may exacerbate extracellular matrix pathology.

Dissecting the role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) and integrin alpha(v)beta3 in angiogenesis in vitro: absence of hemopexin C domain bioactivity, but membrane-Type 1-MMP and alpha(v)beta3 are critical.

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and its hemopexin C domain autolytic fragment (also called PEX) have been proposed to be crucial for angiogenesis. Here, we have investigated the dependency of in vitro angiogenesis on MMP-mediated extracellular proteolysis and integrin alpha(v)beta3-mediated cell adhesion in a three-dimensional collagen I model. The hydroxamate-based synthetic inhibitors BB94, CT1399, and CT1847 inhibited endothelial cell invasion, as did neutralizing anti-membrane-type 1-MMP (MT1-MMP) antibodies and tissue inhibitor of MMP (TIMP)-2 and TIMP-3 but not TIMP-1. This confirmed the pivotal importance of MT1-MMP over other MMPs in this model. Invasion was also inhibited by a nonpeptidic antagonist of integrin alpha(v)beta3, EMD 361276. Although PEX strongly inhibited pro-MMP-2 activation, when contaminating lipopolysaccharide was neutralized, PEX neither affected angiogenesis nor bound integrin alpha(v)beta(3). Moreover, no specific binding of pro-MMP-2 to integrin alpha(v)beta3 was found, whereas only one out of four independently prepared enzymatically active MMP-2 preparations could bind integrin alpha(v)beta3 , and this in a PEX-independent manner. Likewise, integrin alpha(v)beta3 -expressing cells did not bind MMP-2-coated surfaces. Hence, these findings show that endothelial cell invasion of collagen I gels is MT1-MMP and alpha(v)beta3 - dependent but MMP-2 independent and does not support a role for PEX in alpha(v)beta3 integrin binding or in modulating angiogenesis in this system.