Changes in guilt cognitions mediate the effect of trauma-informed guilt reduction therapy on PTSD and depression outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: Trauma-informed guilt reduction therapy (TrIGR), a six-session cognitive behavioral therapy targeting trauma-related guilt and distress, reduces guilt and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression, yet little is known regarding how and why TrIGR may be effective. METHOD: This study examined treatment-related changes in avoidant coping and trauma-related guilt cognitions as possible mediators of treatment effects on PTSD and depression outcomes at 3- and 6-month follow-up. Data were from a randomized controlled trial for treatment of trauma-related guilt comparing TrIGR and supportive care therapy among 145 post-9/11 US veterans (Mage = 39.2 [8.1], 93.8% male). RESULTS: At pretreatment, most (86%) met PTSD criteria. Intent to treat analyses using parallel mediation models indicated changes in guilt cognitions, but not avoidant coping, mediated the effect of TrIGR on reducing PTSD severity at 3-month (a × b = -0.15, p < 0.01, 95% CI: [-0.24 to -0.06], p = 0.001) and 6-month (a × b = -0.17, 95% CI: [-0.26 to -0.07], p = 0.001) follow-up. Similarly, changes in guilt cognitions, but not avoidant coping, mediated the effect of TrIGR on reducing depression severity at 3-month (a × b = -0.10, 95% CI: [-0.18 to -0.02], p = 0.02) and 6-month (a × b = -0.11, 95% CI: [-0.20 to -0.03], p = 0.01) follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to guilt cognitions, changes in avoidant coping were less integral to downstream PTSD and depression symptom reduction. Guilt cognition change may be a salient active ingredient of PTSD and depression treatment for those with trauma-related guilt and a key therapy element to which providers should be attuned.

A clinical trial comparing trauma-informed guilt reduction therapy (TrIGR), a brief intervention for trauma-related guilt, to supportive care therapy.

INTRODUCTION: Trauma-related guilt is common, associated with posttraumatic mental health problems, and can persist after posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) treatment. We compared the efficacy of two six-session psychotherapies, Trauma-Informed Guilt Reduction (TrIGR) and Supportive Care Therapy (SCT), for reducing trauma-related guilt. TrIGR helps patients accurately appraise their role in the trauma and re-engage in values. In SCT, patients guide session content. METHODS: A total of 184 veterans seeking VA mental health services were enrolled across two sites; 145 veterans (mean age: 39.2 [8.1]; 92.4% male; 84.8% with PTSD) who endorsed guilt related to a traumatic event that occurred during a post 9/11 Iraq or Afghanistan deployment were randomized and assessed at baseline, posttreatment, 3- and 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: Linear mixed models using intent-to-treat analyses showed guilt decreased in both conditions with a greater decrease for TrIGR (treatment × time, -0.22; F 1, 455.2 = 18.49, p = .001; d = 0.92) than supportive therapy. PTSD and depressive symptoms showed the same pattern. TrIGR had significantly higher likelihood of PTSD treatment response (67% vs. 40%), loss of PTSD diagnosis (50% vs. 14%), and meaningful change in depression (54% vs. 27%) than supportive therapy. Psychological distress and trait shame improved in both conditions. Quality of life did not change. CONCLUSIONS: Targeting guilt appears to be an effective means for reducing posttraumatic symptoms and distress.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Psychotherapy Participation Among Individuals With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Enrolled in Treatment Research.

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted many aspects of daily life and required a rapid and unprecedented shift in psychotherapy delivery from in-person to telemental health. In the present study, we explored the impact of the pandemic on individuals' ability to participate in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) psychotherapy and the association between the impact of COVID-19 impact on health and financial well-being and psychotherapy participation. Participants (N = 161, 63.2% male, Mage = 42.7 years) were United States military veterans (n = 108), active duty military personnel (n = 12), and civilians (n = 6), who were participating in one of nine PTSD treatment trials. The results indicate a predominately negative COVID-19 impact on therapy participation, although some participants (26.1%) found attending therapy sessions through telehealth to be easier than in-person therapy. Most participants (66.7%) reported that completing in vivo exposure homework became harder during the pandemic. Moreover, the impact of the pandemic on PTSD symptom severity and daily stress were each associated with increased difficulty with aspects of therapy participation. The findings highlight the unique challenges to engaging in PTSD treatment during the pandemic as well as a negative impact on daily stress and PTSD severity, both of which were related to treatment engagement difficulties.

Comparing Exposure- and Coping Skills-Based Treatments on Trauma-Related Guilt in Veterans With Co-Occurring Alcohol Use and Posttraumatic Stress Disorders.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders (SUD) commonly co-occur, and this comorbidity (PTSD-SUD) is associated with more severe symptoms and functional impairment than either disorder alone. Growing evidence indicates that trauma-related guilt, typically concerning negative appraisals of one's actions or inaction during a traumatic event, is associated with PTSD, depression, suicidality, and, possibly, substance use. The present study examined whether integrated treatment for PTSD-SUD was effective in reducing trauma-related guilt as measured by the Trauma-Related Guilt Inventory. Data were drawn from a randomized clinical trial comparing the effectiveness of two integrated therapies on treatment outcomes in a sample of U.S. veterans (N = 119) with comorbid PTSD and SUD. Participants were randomized to receive either Concurrent Treatment of PTSD and Substance Use Disorders Using Prolonged Exposure (COPE; n = 63) or Seeking Safety (SS; n = 56). The results indicated that global guilt decreased over time for the whole sample. However, there was a significant Treatment × Time interaction, such that participants in the COPE condition reported lower rates of global guilt, d = 0.940, over time compared to those in the SS condition, d = .498. To our knowledge, this was the first study to examine the effects of integrated PTSD-SUD treatment on trauma-related guilt. The findings highlight that exposure-based, trauma-focused treatment for comorbid PTSD-SUD can be more effective in decreasing trauma-related guilt, with potentially longer-lasting effects, than non-exposure-based treatment, adding evidence that patients with PTSD-SUD should be offered such treatment.

In the new era of psychedelic assisted therapy: A systematic review of study methodology in randomized controlled trials.

Recent years have seen a resurgence in randomized, placebo controlled trials (RCTs) utilizing non-classical psychedelics (e.g. 3,4-methyl enedioxy methamphetamine [MDMA]), and classical psychedelics (e.g. psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD], and N,N-dimethyltryptamine [DMT/ayahuasca]) in conjunction with assisted therapy (AT) for psychiatric disorders. A notable methodological challenge in psychedelic AT, however, is the complexity of blinding procedures. The lack of efficacious blinding can introduce considerable response bias, reduce internal validity, and compromise participant retention. This systematic review examines design and blinding techniques in RCTs utilizing psychedelics and placebo for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. The aim of this work is to identify factors that may inform future RTC design for conducting psychedelics research. We conducted a systematic review of PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Psycinfo, Embase, and Web of Science Core Collection to examine: (1) placebo selection, (2) study design, and (3) integrity of blinding measures. Sixteen publications were identified as meeting the criteria for a systematic review. Our findings suggest that traditional placebo administration is insufficient to control for expectancy confounds. Consequently, experimental methodology that limits personnel unblinding and the use of an active placebo are important considerations when designing prospective clinical studies involving psychedelics.

A pilot study of stellate ganglion block paired with exposure therapy: Feasibility and acceptability in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.

BACKGROUND: There is growing evidence that stellate ganglion block (SGB) combined with trauma-focused therapy may help veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) whose symptoms have not responded to traditional treatments. By combining SGB with in vivo exposure, veterans may be more able to fully engage in treatment and see improvement in their overall functioning. OBJECTIVE: The primary aim of this project was to conduct a nonrandomized pilot trial on the feasibility and acceptability of delivering SGB paired with individual psychotherapy to veterans with combat-related PTSD. METHOD: Eligible veterans (N = 14) constructed a hierarchy of in vivo exposure exercises, received the SGB procedure, and attended four additional weekly psychotherapy sessions with a focus on exposure exercises. Participants completed measures at baseline, weekly during treatment, and follow-up assessments immediately posttreatment and 1-month later. RESULTS: The recruitment target was easily met, session attendance was strong, and dropout was relatively low (21.4%). SGB was well tolerated with only mild, transient side effects. Participants reported satisfaction with the treatment they received as measured by the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire (M = 28.8). Paired t test analyses revealed a significant decrease in PTSD symptoms as measured by the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5. We also observed a significant reduction in PTSD symptoms as measured by the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 in mixed models, F(2, 13) = 8.68, p = .004. There were no significant improvements in psychosocial functioning or quality of life. CONCLUSION: SGB paired with psychotherapy is feasible and acceptable to veterans and holds promise for symptom reduction among veterans with combat-related PTSD. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Trauma-related correlates of alcohol use in recently deployed OEF/OIF veterans.

The co-occurrence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorders (AUDs) is well documented. Little is known about the factors that contribute to alcohol use and the development of AUDs among military personnel following deployment. The primary aim of this study was to examine trauma-related correlates of alcohol use in recently deployed Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom veterans. Members of the Rhode Island National Guard and Army Reserves (N = 238) completed an in-person, initial assessment an average of 6 months postdeployment. Multiple regression analyses examined predictors of drinking outcomes (combat exposure, total PTSD symptoms, and PTSD symptom clusters) after accounting for gender, age, and history of AUD. Results indicated that total PTSD symptoms, but not combat exposure, significantly predicted alcohol use at the initial assessment. When PTSD symptom clusters were considered separately, reexperiencing symptoms (Cluster B) were the strongest predictor of total alcohol use (B = 3.58, p = .002) and heavy drinking episodes (B = 0.31, p = .005). Implications for these findings include early identification of risk factors that could lead to the development of AUDs, and the importance of integrated treatment approaches for co-occurring PTSD and AUD among veterans postdeployment.

Treating posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol use disorder comorbidity: Current pharmacological therapies and the future of MDMA-integrated psychotherapy.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD) frequently co-occur in patients who have experienced trauma. This comorbidity leads to a vicious cycle where PTSD symptoms beget heavy drinking and vice versa. There are no FDA-approved medications to treat PTSD-AUD; therefore, individuals suffering from this comorbidity are treated with medication approved to treat the disorders separately or with off-label pharmacological interventions. However, these medications are limited in their efficacy for treating PTSD-AUD comorbidity. Emerging research on the nonclassical psychedelic drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) suggests that it may be an effective drug used in conjunction with psychotherapy. The following reviews the current research for clinical pharmacotherapies, as well as MDMA-integrative psychotherapy as they pertain to PTSD and AUD in isolation and co-occurrence. Future directions for the role of psychedelic-integrative therapy for the treatment of this comorbidity are discussed.

Associations among meaning in life, coping, and distress in trauma-exposed U.S. military veterans.

Experiencing meaning in life may be particularly relevant following traumatic experiences as individuals who report meaning post trauma report less psychological distress. Engaging in avoidant coping, however, may be a sign of underlying psychological distress in the aftermath of traumatic experiences. We sought to examine associations among meaning in life, avoidant coping, and psychological distress in a sample of trauma-exposed veterans. Secondary cross-sectional analyses were conducted on data from veterans exposed to a traumatic event(s) who experienced clinically meaningful guilt (N = 145). Questionnaires on meaning in life, avoidant coping, and psychological distress were administered, and structural equation modeling was used to test direct effects. Path analysis revealed that greater meaning was associated with lower depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress symptomatology, while higher avoidant coping was associated with greater depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress, and somatization symptomatology. Participants who report more meaning in life and report lower avoidant coping post trauma may experience less psychological distress. If replicated longitudinally, results could suggest cultivating meaning in life and reducing avoidant coping may decrease psychological distress. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Co-occurring Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorders in Veteran Populations.

Co-occurring posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorders have become increasingly prevalent in military populations. Over the past decade, PTSD has emerged as one of the most common forms of psychopathology among the 1.7 million American military personnel deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan in Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), and Operation New Dawn (OND). Among veterans from all eras, symptoms of PTSD have been highly correlated with hazardous drinking, leading to greater decreases in overall health and greater difficulties readjusting to civilian life. In fact, a diagnosis of co-occurring PTSD and alcohol use disorder has proven more detrimental than a diagnosis of PTSD or alcohol use disorder alone. In order to effectively address co-occurring PTSD and alcohol use disorder, both the clinical and research communities have focused on better understanding this comorbidity, as well as increasing treatment outcomes among the veteran population. The purpose of the present article is threefold: (1) present a case study that highlights the manner in which PTSD and alcohol use disorder co-develop after trauma exposure; (2) present scientific theories on co - occurrence of PTSD and alcohol use disorder; and (3) present current treatment options for addressing this common comorbidity.

Moral injury as a unique predictor of suicidal ideation in a veteran sample with a substance use disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Suicide among military veterans accounts for 22.2% of all suicide deaths in the United States per year, and veterans with a substance use disorder (SUD) are at an even higher risk for death by suicide. This prevalence has led to increased efforts to identify and investigate both potential risks and protective factors for veterans. This study examines relationships between depression symptomology, exposure to potentially morally injurious events, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis, and suicidal ideation, with the primary aim of examining exposure to moral injurious events as a risk factor for suicide in veterans with SUD. METHOD: An inpatient sample of 40 veterans with an active SUD admitted for suicidal ideation was evaluated to examine differences in suicidal ideation, depression symptomology, and exposure to morally injurious events in participants with and without a PTSD diagnosis. Further, exposure to morally injurious events and depression symptomology were examined as predictors of suicidal ideation. RESULTS: Analyses revealed that exposure to morally injurious events (d = 1.72) and depression symptomology (d = 0.72) were higher in participants with a PTSD diagnosis compared to those without a diagnosis, though no significant differences emerged between the two groups on suicidality. A hierarchical regression analysis indicated that only exposure to morally injurious events significantly accounted for variance in suicidality (ß = .31, p = .04, 95% confidence interval [.01, .37]). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that although PTSD may be associated with exposure to morally injurious events and depression symptoms, exposure to morally injurious events may potentially lead to higher suicide risk among veterans above and beyond PTSD and depressive symptoms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Trauma Informed Guilt Reduction (TrIGR) therapy for guilt, shame, and moral injury resulting from trauma: Rationale, design, and methodology of a two-site randomized controlled trial.

Guilt, shame, and moral injury (MI) are common reactions following exposure to traumatic events and are associated with greater severity of several mental health problems, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, increased risk of suicidal ideation and poorer psychosocial functioning. Trauma-Informed Guilt Reduction (TrIGR) is a transdiagnostic psychotherapy to address guilt, shame, and MI stemming from traumatic events. The primary goals of TrIGR are to help patients accurately appraise their trauma and to re-engage with their values in order to lead a more meaningful life. This paper presents the rationale, design, and methodology of a two-site randomized controlled trial (RCT) examining the efficacy of TrIGR compared to Supportive Care Therapy (SCT) in a sample of U.S. veterans (N = 145) who endorse guilt related to a traumatic event that occurred during military deployment. This study is the first RCT powered to investigate TrIGR's efficacy on reducing posttraumatic guilt, as measured by the Trauma Related Guilt Inventory (TRGI), in comparison to an active control condition. In addition, the study will examine a range of secondary and exploratory outcomes including shame, quality of life, suicidal ideation, substance use, and PTSD and depression symptoms. Findings from this efficacy study will be essential in informing future efficacy and effectiveness trials.

Evaluation of Self-Compassion Focused Group Treatment for Co-Occurring PTSD and Substance Use in Veterans with Posttraumatic Guilt: A Case Study.

Co-occurring posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders (SUD) following combat exposure affects a significant proportion of military veterans. Guilt and shame are common to PTSD-SUD, suggesting a possible role as a mechanism underlying both disorders. Cultivating self-compassion (SC) among veterans is a logical approach to treating guilt and shame. The purpose of this article is threefold: (a) present scientific theories of SC in the veteran population with emphasis on PTSD, substance use, and guilt and shame; (b) present a case study that highlights how self-compassion-focused treatment (SCFT) can be utilized in a group format with veterans with PTSD-SUD and posttraumatic guilt; and (c) discuss implications of our findings for refining SCFT within a group intervention setting among this population and for future research.

A model for treating COVID-19-related guilt, shame, and moral injury.

During the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, people around the world have faced a myriad of heart-rending and ethically difficult scenarios (e.g., not being able to tend to a sick or dying loved one) that may lead to subsequent guilt, shame, or moral injury. Trauma-informed guilt reduction therapy is a brief intervention that helps clients accurately appraise their role in a stressful event (such as those experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic) and find positive ways to express important values going forward. Future studies of trauma-informed guilt reduction therapy with those affected by COVID-19 will be helpful for clarifying its effectiveness with this population. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Posttraumatic stress disorder with and without alcohol use disorders: diagnostic and clinical correlates in a psychiatric sample.

This study compared outpatients (n=196) with PTSD versus PTSD+alcohol use disorders (AUD) on clinical measures. PTSD+AUD patients were more likely to meet criteria for Borderline and Antisocial Personality Disorders. Emotion dysregulation may help account for the relationship between PTSD and AUD.

Density of familial alcoholism and its effects on alcohol use and problems in college students.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies of family history of alcoholism (FHA) in college students have typically relied on dichotomous indices of paternal drinking. This study examined the prevalence of FHA and its effects on alcohol use and problems using a density measure in a sample (n = 408) of college students. METHODS: Undergraduate students completed an anonymous survey in exchange for course credit. Data was collected between 2005 and 2006. RESULTS: Using a density measure of FHA, we observed an overall prevalence rate of 65.9% and a rate of 29.1% for FHA in both first and second-degree relatives. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to investigate relations among FHA, alcohol use/problems and previously identified etiological risk factors for alcohol use disorders (AUD). Results indicated a significant positive association between FHA and alcohol-related problems and this relationship was mediated by age of onset of drinking, behavioral undercontrol and current cigarette use. Behavioral undercontrol also mediated the relationship between gender and alcohol problems. Additionally, FHA was associated with an earlier age of onset of drinking and this was related to greater alcohol use. CONCLUSIONS: Assessing density of FHA in future trajectory research may capture a greater number of students at risk for acute alcohol-related problems and/or future development of AUDs. Future preventive interventions with this population, which should begin well before the college years, may benefit from considering personality factors and incorporating smoking cessation to help identify at-risk students and assist those who wish to cut down on their alcohol use but find that smoking acts as a trigger for increased drinking.

Mechanisms of Behavior Change Within Peer-Implemented Alcohol Interventions.

OBJECTIVE: Colleges continue to experience a high number of referred students because of campus alcohol violations. Subsequently, there has been a trend to use peer-implemented minimal interventions (PMIs), often using motivational interviewing (MI). However, little is known about how PMIs facilitate behavior change. This study aims to examine the mechanisms of behavior change within PMIs and their influence on alcohol reduction among mandated students. METHOD: Participants (N = 146; mean age = 18.7 years; 67% male; 94% White) were college students who violated campus alcohol policy at a Northeastern liberal arts college who received a 15-minute PMI addressing their alcohol use. The Motivational Interviewing Skill Code (Miller et al., 2003) was used to identify peer counselor behaviors that were MI consistent (MICO), client change talk (CT), and client self-exploration. RESULTS: MICO behaviors were positively associated with CT and self-exploration. Client CT and self-exploration were negatively associated with alcohol-related outcomes. Furthermore, mediational models examining MICO behaviors revealed effects for two paths: (a) from MICO to client CT to reduced alcohol use; and (b) from MICO to client self-exploration to reduced alcohol-related consequences and use. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the primary causal chain examining the influence of MICO on in-session client behaviors and related post-session behavior change in PMIs among at-risk students.

Fraternity and sorority involvement, social influences, and alcohol use among college students: a prospective examination.

This study used latent growth curve modeling to investigate whether the effects of gender and Greek involvement on alcohol use and problems over the first 2 years of college are best characterized by selection, socialization, or reciprocal influence processes. Three social influences (alcohol offers, social modeling, and perceived norms) were examined as potential mediators of these effects. Undergraduate participants (N = 388) completed self-report measures prior to enrollment and in the spring of their freshmen and sophomore years. Male gender and involvement in the Greek system were associated with greater alcohol use and problems prior to college. Both gender and Greek involvement significantly predicted increases in alcohol use and problems over the first 2 years of college. Cross-domain analyses provided strong support for a mediational role of each of the social influence constructs on alcohol use and problems prior to matriculation, and prematriculation social modeling and alcohol offers mediated relations between Greek involvement and changes in alcohol use over time. Findings suggest that students, particularly men, who affiliate with Greek organizations constitute an at-risk group prior to entering college, suggesting the need for selected interventions with this population, which should take place before or during the pledging process.

Brief motivational intervention and alcohol expectancy challenge with heavy drinking college students: a randomized factorial study.

This study is the first reported test of the unique and combined effects of Brief Motivational Intervention (BMI) and Alcohol Expectancy Challenge (AEC) with heavy drinking college students. Three hundred and thirty-five participants were randomly assigned in a 2x2 factorial design to either: BMI, AEC, BMI and AEC, and assessment only conditions. Follow-ups occurred at 1, 3, and 6 months. Unconditional latent curve analyses suggested that alcohol use (Q-F), heavy episodic drinking, and alcohol problems were best modeled as quadratic effects. BMI produced significant decreases in Q-F, heavy drinking, and problems, while AEC produced significant decreases in Q-F and heavy drinking. There was no evidence of an additive effect of combining the interventions. Intervention effects decayed somewhat for BMI and completely for AEC over 6 months. Multi-group analyses suggested similar intervention effects for men and women. BMI effects on alcohol problems were mediated by perceived norms. These findings extend previous research with BMI and AEC but do not support their utility as a combined preventive intervention to reduce collegiate alcohol abuse.

The moderating role of dysphoria in the relationship between intrusions and alcohol use.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is frequently comorbid with alcohol use disorders (AUD; Calabrese et al., 2011; McFall, Mackay, & Donovan, 1992). Among several explanations for this comorbidity, the most empirically supported is the self-medication theory which postulates that substances are used to medicate PTSD-related distress (Keane & Wolfe, 1990; Khantzian, 1985; Stewart, 1996). The current study examines the effects of trauma-related distress on alcohol use (total drinking days, drinks per drinking day, heavy drinking days) in a sample of 127 trauma-exposed Veterans following deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. The dysphoria symptoms of PTSD were used as an indicator of distress, and examined as a moderator in the relationship between intrusion symptoms of PTSD and alcohol use. The proposed moderation model was tested using cross-sectional data from the first month following return from deployment, and at 6 months and at 12 months post-deployment. Results showed that dysphoria symptoms significantly moderated relations between intrusions and total drinking days and heavy drinking days at one month post-deployment; however, a significant pattern was not demonstrated at 6 months and 12 months. Further, dysphoria did not moderate the relation between intrusion symptoms and drinks per drinking day at the three time points. Theoretical and clinical implications are subsequently discussed.