Evaluation of the effect of cooling and of the addition of collagenase on llama sperm DNA using toluidine blue.

The effect cryopreservation has on sperm chromatin condensation has been studied in many species but not in South American camelids. The objectives of this study were to evaluate with toluidine blue (TB) the effects of cooling and of adding collagenase on llama sperm DNA condensation. The optimum incubation time (30 s, 1.5 and 3 min) with a reducing agent (dithiothreitol) was also determined. When comparing cooled samples with the raw ejaculate, a significant increase in sperm showing a high degree of decondensation (TB positive) was observed (P = 0.005). A positive correlation was observed, both in raw and cooled semen, between sperm head morphological abnormalities observed in TB-stained cells and TB-positive sperm (highly decondensed DNA), but not with TB-intermediate spermatozoa (moderately decondensed DNA). No significant differences (P > 0.05) were observed in samples incubated with or without 0.1% collagenase. In cooled semen, but not in raw, a significant increase (P = 0.000) in reacted sperm (TB positive) was observed using 3-min incubation with 1% dithiothreitol (DTT). To conclude, cooling would seem to produce an increase in llama sperm chromatin decondensation. Also, 0.1% collagenase in H-TALP-BSA could be added to raw semen to aid its manipulation as it would not seem to increase DNA decondensation.

Morphometric analysis of llama (Lama glama) sperm head.

Llama production in Argentina has increased, as the international interest in breeding this type of animals has grown in the last years. Considering the great polymorphism that llama spermatozoa present at evaluation using light microscopy, the aim of this study was to objectively evaluate llama sperm head morphometry using digital morphometric analysis. Five ejaculates from each of eight males were obtained to evaluate morphometric parameters of 8000 sperm heads stained with Tinción 15(®). The following average results were obtained for each parameter: size parameters: area 20.09 µm(2), length 6.60 µm, width 4.14 µm, equivalent circle diameter 5.06 µm, curve length 5.79 µm and curve width 3.48 µm; boundary parameters: perimeter 18.54 µm and convex perimeter 17.34 µm; and shape parameters: roundness 1.28 and elongation 1.59. Morphometric parameters of sperm head were compared between ejaculates of the same male and between males. Significant differences between ejaculates of the same male were found for all parameters evaluated (P < 0.01). Significant differences between males were found for all morphometric parameters (P < 0.01) except for curve length, curve width and perimeter. The differences detected would indicate that there is not a single morphometric pattern for Lama glama sperm head, because parameter values cannot be standardised.

Evaluation of Lama glama semen viscosity with a cone-plate rotational viscometer.

Llama semen is highly viscous. This characteristic is usually evaluated subjectively by measuring the thread formed when carefully pippeting a sample of semen. The aims of this study were (i) to objectively determine and analyse llama semen viscosity, (ii) to compare semen viscosity between ejaculates of the same male as well as between different males, (iii) to study the correlation between viscosity and other semen characteristics and (iv) to evaluate the effect of collagenase on semen viscosity. Semen viscosity was evaluated using a cone-plate Brookfield rotational viscometer. A non Newtonian, pseudoplastic behaviour was observed in the 45 semen samples evaluated. Rheological parameters were determined obtaining the following results (mean ± SD): apparent viscosity at 11.5 s(-1): 46.71 ± 26.8 cpoise and at 115 s(-1): 12.61 ± 4.1 cpoise; structural viscosity (K) (dyne s cm(-2)): 2.18 ± 1.4 and coefficient of consistency (n): 0.45 ± 0.1. Statistical differences were found between different ejaculates of the same male for structural viscosity and apparent viscosity at 11.5 s(-1) (P < 0.01). Correlation was found only between coefficient of consistency (n) and sperm concentration (P < 0.01). Significant differences for coefficient of consistency (n) and viscosity at 115 s(-1) were found between samples incubated with and without collagenase (P < 0.05).

[Chilean medicine immediately after the 1891 revolution]. / La medicina chilena inmediatamente después de la revolución de 1891.

The conflict between the Chilean President Balmaceda and the parliament lead him to rule the country despotically during 8 months, until his suicide in 1891. During this lapse he persecuted and imprisoned his opponents, including several Medical School professors. Doctor David Benavente, professor of Anatomy and Balmaceda's opponent, wrote a chronicle at the Revista Médica de Chile (1897; 20:46) referring to the changes that occurred at the Medical School: "Flogged by dictatorship's winds, it barely gave sings of life during the eight months that Balmaceda dominated the country". Political passion almost annihilated for ever the first scientific teaching center of the University of Chile, posed a project at the Public Instruction Council "to create in all high schools a special class about the general principles of the Constitution". Once democratic normality was re-established, the development of Chilean Medicine was greatly impelled, sending young physicians to specialize at qualified european centers.

[Chilean medicine during the 1891 revolution]. / La medicina chilena en la revolución de 1891.

José Manuel Balmaceda was president of Chile between 1886 and 1891. Confronted with an institutional conflict, he was deposed by the Republic's parliament in January, 1891. Some distinguished physicians were members of that parliament; Dr Alfonso Valderrama, senator, chronicler of Revista Médica de Chile's first issues and General Secretary of the University of Chile; Dr José Joaquín Aguirre, deputy. Dean of the Faculty of Medicine (1817-1889) and Rector of the University of Chile; Dr Federico Puga Borne, deputy and Minister of Public Instruction and Justice; Dr Augusto Orrego Luco, deputy and writer; Dr José Arce, deputy. President Balmaceda decreed the intervention of the Medical School in February 1891, named Dr Arce as intervenor and designed professors attached to his government. He also dismissed several physicians. Overwhelmed by the political conflict, Balmaceda took refuge in the Argentinian embasy and committed suicide in September, 1891.

[A medical conflict in 1871]. / Un conflicto médico en 1871.

The first medical strife in Chile occurred in the city of Valparaiso. The intendant protested to the examining board of physicians because 5 doctors refused to give emergency medical care to a patient late at night. "Is fair that both the authority and the public have the right to demand those services and it is not natural that their fulfillment depend on the good or bad will of the physicians". The intendant proclaimed a decree establishing a weekly obligatory nocturnal medical services of two physicians under police control and fine threaten. The 14 doctors of the city menaced to resing to their profession considering that the decree "violates constitution and laws." The medical corps of Santiago made common cause with their colleagues "profoundly irritated". The conflict was finally resolved.

[The first and unique epidemics of cholera in Chile (1886-1888)]. / La primera y unica epidemia de colera en Chile (1886-1888).

The first and only cholera epidemics in Chile took place between 1886 and 1888. It had originated in India in 1883, extended to Mecca and Alexandria, the Mediterranean, and reached Chile from Argentina. In spite of sanitary measures adopted by the government, the epidemics swept the country, with an estimated 56,838 patients and 23,395 dead (41% lethality rate). Two outburst were observed: the first lasted 203 days (1886-87), the second 121 days. Duration varied from town to town, from 16 to a maximum of 288 days.

[Andres Bello and the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Chile]. / Andres Bello y la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Chile.

Andrés Bello, the first Rector of the University of Chile (1843) was a great supporter of the development of Medicine. In 1842 he said that the Faculty should pay special attention to diseases that were prevalent in Chile, and provide information to the Government concerning public hygiene and related matters. The Faculty of Medicine was one of the first 5 Faculties. It was integrated by academic members including 6 Europeans, T Armstrong, G Blest, N Cox, J Lafargue, L Sazie and 2 Chileans, L Ballester and F J Tocornal. The first Dean was the french surgeon and obstetrician Lorenzo Sazie.

[Andrés Bello and medical education]. / Andrés Bello y la enseñanza medica.

Andrés Bello, a Venezuelan intellectual arrived in Chile in 1829. He had a decisive influence on the development of natural sciences and medical sciences in this country. The first formal teaching program in Medicine appeared in 1833, with few students due to the low social prestige of Medicine at that time. The Faculty of Medicine of the University of Chile was created in 1842, when Andrés Bello was its first Rector.

[Andres Bello and the origins of the University of Chile]. / Andrés Bello y los origenes de la Universidad de Chile.

During colonial times the Royal University of San Felipe was founded in 1738. The first plan for medical studies was outlined in 1779. During the Independence, the National Institute created in 1813 took over higher education. The first Course of Medicine was dictated there in 1833. The University of San Felipe was replaced by the University of Chile in 1842. Andrés Bello, its first Rector, developed the constituting laws of the University.

[The Revista Médica de Chile: 100 years ago]. / La Revista Médica de Chile. 100 años atras.

José Joaquín Aguirre MD (1822-1901) was elected Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile in 1867. He served for 13 years. A professor of Surgery and Anatomy he was the fifth Dean of the Faculty and the first President of the Medical Society of Santiago (1869). In 1889 he became Rector of the University of Chile, the first physician to occupy this high position.

[Revista Médica de Chile. 100 years ago]. / La Revista Médica de Chile. 100 años atrás.

This issue contains a report on the completion of construction of the School of Medicine building to be inaugurated in September 1889. The creation of the Council of Public Hygiene is reported. An article on color blindness and case reports of diaphragmatic hernia and giant ovary cysts are included.

[The Revista Médica de Chile, 100 years ago]. / La Revista Medica de Chile. 100 años atras.

This issue of the journal contains information related to the "Protomedicato", an institution established in Spain in 1477 and incorporated to its colonies. Its functions included the granting of medical licenses, supervision of public hygiene and legal faculties. It was established in Chile in 1738. The dean of the Medical School, University of Chile became "protomedico" en 1843. The institution was abolished in Chile in 1879.

[Revista Médica de Chile. 100 years ago]. / La Revista Médica de Chile. 100 años atrás.

France celebrated the first centennial of the French Revolution. Sixty nine international meetings took place, 24 of them dealing with medical or public health problems. The Chilean Commission for the Paris Universal Exhibit asked Dr Adolfo Murillo to write an account (460 pages) of public health conditions in Chile. Main epidemics at that time (smallpox, tuberculosis, dysentery, venereal diseases, typhoid fever and typhus are described.

[The Revista Médica de Chile. 100 years ago]. / La Revista Medica de Chile. 100 años atras.

The news section of the Journal informed about the completion of the School of Medicine, consisting of large classrooms, auditoriums and laboratories. The new curriculum and rules of the School had become available in 1986.

[The Revista Medica de Chile 100 years ago]. / La Revista Médica de Chile 100 años atras.

Included in that issue was an article by David Benavente MD, dealing with the last cholera epidemics. This disease reached Chile in 1886, from Argentina. An estimated 40,000 people died from it. Another article on the same subject by Wenceslao Díaz MD is also included.

[The "Revista Médica de Chile." 100 years ago]. / La revista Médica de chile. 100 años atras.

An article on the treatment of tuberculosis encouraging the possibilities of successful outcome; comments upon private and public hygiene, upon the development of microbiology in Germany, are included. The creation of the Pasteur Institute in Paris for the treatment of rabies is reported.

[Chronologic list of the members of the Medical School of the University of Chile (1843-1865)]. / Lista cronológica de los miembros de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Chile (1843-1865).

The Faculty of Medicine at the University of Chile was started in 1843. Founding professors included Tomas Armstrong, Guillermo C. Blest, Nataniel Cox, Francisco Javier Tocomal, Juan Blest, Julio Lafargue, Manuel Cortés, Luis Ballester. Further nominations, up to a number of 30, took place from 1843 to 1865, and are listed in this paper.

["Revista Médica de Chile": 120 years (July 1872-July 1992)]. / 120 años de la "Revista Médica de Chile" (Julio 1872-Julio 1992).

The "Revista Medica de Chile" founded in 1872 is the second oldest medical journal in Latin America after the "Gaceta Medica de Mexico" (1864). Among medical journals in the world it is placed 24. It has been published monthly without interruption, except for the period January through December 1891, due to the revolution taking place at that time. The first Editor was German Schneider, a German physician from Bonn who came to Chile in 1850 with the immigrants that settled in the South.

[Nicanor Rojas, dean of the School of Medicine during Balmaceda's dictatorship]. / Nicanor Rojas, decano de la Facultad de Medicina durante la dictadura de Balmaceda.

The Chilean President José Manuel Balmaceda (1886-1891) had a constitutional conflict with the parliament. This conflict lead to a revolution that ended with the President's suicide, when he was refuged at the Argentinian Embassy in September 1891. President Balmaceda conducted an authoritarian government during several months. A decree from February, 1897, disposed the reorganization of the Medical School, dismissed and imprisoned the Dean, Dr Barros-Borgoño and nominated new Professors. Dr Nicanor Rojas, Professor of Gynecology was assigned as Dean and Dr Carlos Sazié as secretary. During the During the war against Perú and Bolivia, Dr. Rojas worked gratuitously and became prominent, being named Chief Surgeon of the Chilean Army. After the triumph of the revolution against President Balmaceda, Dr Rojas was discharged, and died in 1892.