In the swim of things: recent insights to neurogenetic disorders from zebrafish.

The advantage of zebrafish as a model to study human pathologies lies in the ease of manipulating gene expression in vivo. Here we focus on recent progress in our understanding of motor neuron diseases and neurodevelopmental disorders and discuss how novel technologies will permit further disease models to be developed. Together these advances set the stage for this simple functional model, with particular advantages for transgenesis, multigenic analyses and chemical biology, to become uniquely suited for advancing the functional genomics of neurological and possibly psychiatric diseases - from understanding the genetics and cell biology of degenerative and developmental disorders to the discovery of therapeutics.

De novo mutations in the gene encoding the synaptic scaffolding protein SHANK3 in patients ascertained for schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia likely results from poorly understood genetic and environmental factors. We studied the gene encoding the synaptic protein SHANK3 in 285 controls and 185 schizophrenia patients with unaffected parents. Two de novo mutations (R1117X and R536W) were identified in two families, one being found in three affected brothers, suggesting germline mosaicism. Zebrafish and rat hippocampal neuron assays revealed behavior and differentiation defects resulting from the R1117X mutant. As mutations in SHANK3 were previously reported in autism, the occurrence of SHANK3 mutations in subjects with a schizophrenia phenotype suggests a molecular genetic link between these two neurodevelopmental disorders.

Zebrafish models for the functional genomics of neurogenetic disorders.

In this review, we consider recent work using zebrafish to validate and study the functional consequences of mutations of human genes implicated in a broad range of degenerative and developmental disorders of the brain and spinal cord. Also we present technical considerations for those wishing to study their own genes of interest by taking advantage of this easily manipulated and clinically relevant model organism. Zebrafish permit mutational analyses of genetic function (gain or loss of function) and the rapid validation of human variants as pathological mutations. In particular, neural degeneration can be characterized at genetic, cellular, functional, and behavioral levels. Zebrafish have been used to knock down or express mutations in zebrafish homologs of human genes and to directly express human genes bearing mutations related to neurodegenerative disorders such as spinal muscular atrophy, ataxia, hereditary spastic paraplegia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), epilepsy, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, fronto-temporal dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. More recently, we have been using zebrafish to validate mutations of synaptic genes discovered by large-scale genomic approaches in developmental disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, and non-syndromic mental retardation. Advances in zebrafish genetics such as multigenic analyses and chemical genetics now offer a unique potential for disease research. Thus, zebrafish hold much promise for advancing the functional genomics of human diseases, the understanding of the genetics and cell biology of degenerative and developmental disorders, and the discovery of therapeutics. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Zebrafish Models of Neurological Diseases.

Alternatively spliced caspase-6B isoform inhibits the activation of caspase-6A.

Caspase-6 (Casp6) is activated early in Alzheimer disease and involved in axonal degeneration, but the regulation of Casp6 activity has not been explored. Several alternatively spliced forms of caspases act as inhibitors of caspase activation. The CASP6 gene generates an alternatively spliced transcript known as CASP6ß in addition to the CASP6α that encodes pro-Casp6a. Here, we show that the CASP6ß transcript and the pro-Casp6b protein are present in many cell lines, in primary human neurons, and in human brains. Unlike most other alternatively spliced caspase transcripts, pro-Casp6b contains a catalytic site. However, purified pro-Casp6b did not have caspase activity, nor did it inhibit already activated Casp6a. Pro-Casp6b prevented the proteolytic activation of pro-Casp6a in vitro and in cells. Pro-Casp6b interacts directly with pro-Casp6a. This work shows that pro-Casp6b is an inhibitor of pro-Casp6a activation. These results imply that pro-Casp6b could negatively regulate pro-Casp6a activation in neurons and prevent Casp6a-mediated axonal degeneration.

Truncating mutations in NRXN2 and NRXN1 in autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia.

Growing genetic evidence is converging in favor of common pathogenic mechanisms for autism spectrum disorders (ASD), intellectual disability (ID or mental retardation) and schizophrenia (SCZ), three neurodevelopmental disorders affecting cognition and behavior. Copy number variations and deleterious mutations in synaptic organizing proteins including NRXN1 have been associated with these neurodevelopmental disorders, but no such associations have been reported for NRXN2 or NRXN3. From resequencing the three neurexin genes in individuals affected by ASD (n = 142), SCZ (n = 143) or non-syndromic ID (n = 94), we identified a truncating mutation in NRXN2 in a patient with ASD inherited from a father with severe language delay and family history of SCZ. We also identified a de novo truncating mutation in NRXN1 in a patient with SCZ, and other potential pathogenic ASD mutations. These truncating mutations result in proteins that fail to promote synaptic differentiation in neuron coculture and fail to bind either of the established postsynaptic binding partners LRRTM2 or NLGN2 in cell binding assays. Our findings link NRXN2 disruption to the pathogenesis of ASD for the first time and further strengthen the involvement of NRXN1 in SCZ, supporting the notion of a common genetic mechanism in these disorders.

Self-activation of Caspase-6 in vitro and in vivo: Caspase-6 activation does not induce cell death in HEK293T cells.

Caspase-6 (Casp6) is a short pro-domain caspase that is activated early in Alzheimer disease, yet, little is known on the mechanism of activation of this caspase. In this study, critical proteolytic processing events required for Casp6 activation in vitro and in vivo were evaluated by site directed mutagenesis of the D23 pro-domain, and D179 and D193 linker processing sites. We found that (1) Casp6 was self-processed and activated in vitro and in vivo, (2) uncleavable Casp6 possessed low activity in vitro but not in vivo, (3) the pro-domain of Casp6 entirely prevented self-processing and activation in vivo but not in vitro, (4) removal of the pro-domain promoted Casp6 activation, (5) cleavage at either D179 or D193 was sufficient to generate activity in vitro and in vivo, and (6) Casp6 activity did not induce cell death in HEK293T cells. We conclude that the Casp6 is activated through proteolytic cleavage, as are the effector Caspase-3 and -7. However, unlike other effector caspases, Casp6 can be entirely self-activated and its activation does not necessarily induce cell death.

Mutations in the calcium-related gene IL1RAPL1 are associated with autism.

In a systematic sequencing screen of synaptic genes on the X chromosome, we have identified an autistic female without mental retardation (MR) who carries a de novo frameshift Ile367SerfsX6 mutation in Interleukin-1 Receptor Accessory Protein-Like 1 (IL1RAPL1), a gene implicated in calcium-regulated vesicle release and dendrite differentiation. We showed that the function of the resulting truncated IL1RAPL1 protein is severely altered in hippocampal neurons, by measuring its effect on neurite outgrowth activity. We also sequenced the coding region of the close related member IL1RAPL2 and of NCS-1/FREQ, which physically interacts with IL1RAPL1, in a cohort of subjects with autism. The screening failed to identify non-synonymous variant in IL1RAPL2, whereas a rare missense (R102Q) in NCS-1/FREQ was identified in one autistic patient. Furthermore, we identified by comparative genomic hybridization a large intragenic deletion of exons 3-7 of IL1RAPL1 in three brothers with autism and/or MR. This deletion causes a frameshift and the introduction of a premature stop codon, Ala28GlufsX15, at the very beginning of the protein. All together, our results indicate that mutations in IL1RAPL1 cause a spectrum of neurological impairments ranging from MR to high functioning autism.

MOZ and MORF histone acetyltransferases interact with the Runt-domain transcription factor Runx2.

The monocytic leukemia zinc finger protein MOZ and its homologue MORF have been implicated in leukemogenesis. Both MOZ and MORF are histone acetyltransferases with weak transcriptional repression domains and strong transcriptional activation domains, suggesting that they may function as transcriptional coregulators. Here we describe that MOZ and MORF both interact with Runx2 (or Cbfa1), a Runt-domain transcription factor that is known to play important roles in T cell lymphomagenesis and bone development. Through its C-terminal SM (serine- and methionine-rich) domain, MORF binds to Runx2 in vitro and in vivo. Consistent with this, the SM domain of MORF also binds to Runx1 (or AML1), a Runx2 homologue that is frequently altered by leukemia-associated chromosomal translocations. While MORF does not acetylate Runx2, its SM domain potentiates Runx2-dependent transcriptional activation. Moreover, endogenous MORF is required for transcriptional activation by Runx2. Intriguingly, Runx2 negatively regulates the transcriptional activation potential of the SM domain. Like that of MORF, the SM domain of MOZ physically and functionally interacts with Runx2. These results thus identify Runx2 as an interaction partner of MOZ and MORF and suggest that both acetyltransferases are involved in regulating transcriptional activation mediated by Runx2 and its homologues.

Estrogen and androgen protection of human neurons against intracellular amyloid beta1-42 toxicity through heat shock protein 70.

Intracellular amyloidbeta peptide (iAbeta1-42) accumulates in the Alzheimer's disease brain before plaque and tangle formation (Gouras et al., 2000) and is extremely toxic to human neurons (Zhang et al., 2002). Here, we investigated whether androgen and estrogen could prevent iAbeta1-4) toxicity, because both these hormones have a wide range of neuroprotective actions. At physiological concentrations, 17-beta-estradiol, testosterone, and methyl testosterone reduce iAbeta1-42-induced cell death by 50% in neurons treated after the injection and by 80-90% in neurons treated 1 hr before the injection. The neuroprotective action of the hormones is mediated by receptors, because the estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist tamoxifen and the androgen receptor (AR) antagonist flutamide completely block the estrogen- and androgen-mediated neuroprotection, respectively. Transcriptional activity is required for the neuroprotective action, because dominant negative forms of the receptors that block the transcriptional activity of the ER and AR prevent estrogen- and androgen-mediated neuroprotection. Proteomics followed by Western blot analyses identified increased levels of heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) in testosterone- and estrogen-treated human neurons. Comicroinjection of Hsp70 with the iAbeta1-42 blocks the toxicity of iAbeta1-42. We conclude that estrogen and androgens protect human neurons against iAbeta1-42 toxicity by increasing the levels of Hsp70 in the neurons.

De novo truncating mutation in Kinesin 17 associated with schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia (SCZ) is one of the most disabling psychiatric disorders. It is thought to be due to a complex interplay between polygenic and various environmental risk factors, although recent reports on genomic copy number variations suggest that a fraction of the cases could result from variably penetrant de novo variants. The gene encoding the synaptic motor protein kinesin 17 (KIF17) involved in glutamatergic synapse is a candidate gene for SCZ. METHODS: As part of our Synapse to Disease project, we resequenced KIF17 in a cohort of individuals with sporadic SCZ (188 subjects). Additional populations included autism spectrum disorder (142 subjects), nonsyndromic mental retardation (95 subjects), and control subjects (568 subjects). Functional validation of the human mutation was done in developing zebrafish. RESULTS: Here we report the identification of a de novo nonsense truncating mutation in one patient with SCZ, in kinesin 17, a synaptic motor protein. No de novo or truncating KIF17 mutations were found in the additional samples. We further validated the pathogenic nature of this mutation by knocking down its expression in zebrafish embryos, which resulted in a developmental defect. CONCLUSIONS: Together our findings suggest that disruption of KIF17, although rare, could result in a schizophrenia phenotype and emphasize the possible involvement of rare de novo mutations in this disorder.

Molecular architecture of quartet MOZ/MORF histone acetyltransferase complexes.

The monocytic leukemia zinc finger protein MOZ and the related factor MORF form tetrameric complexes with ING5 (inhibitor of growth 5), EAF6 (Esa1-associated factor 6 ortholog), and the bromodomain-PHD finger protein BRPF1, -2, or -3. To gain new insights into the structure, function, and regulation of these complexes, we reconstituted them and performed various molecular analyses. We found that BRPF proteins bridge the association of MOZ and MORF with ING5 and EAF6. An N-terminal region of BRPF1 interacts with the acetyltransferases; the enhancer of polycomb (EPc) homology domain in the middle part binds to ING5 and EAF6. The association of BRPF1 with EAF6 is weak, but ING5 increases the affinity. These three proteins form a trimeric core that is conserved from Drosophila melanogaster to humans, although authentic orthologs of MOZ and MORF are absent in invertebrates. Deletion mapping studies revealed that the acetyltransferase domain of MOZ/MORF is sufficient for BRPF1 interaction. At the functional level, complex formation with BRPF1 and ING5 drastically stimulates the activity of the acetyltransferase domain in acetylation of nucleosomal histone H3 and free histones H3 and H4. An unstructured 18-residue region at the C-terminal end of the catalytic domain is required for BRPF1 interaction and may function as an "activation lid." Furthermore, BRPF1 enhances the transcriptional potential of MOZ and a leukemic MOZ-TIF2 fusion protein. These findings thus indicate that BRPF proteins play a key role in assembling and activating MOZ/MORF acetyltransferase complexes.

Expression, purification, and analysis of MOZ and MORF histone acetyltransferases.

Histone acetylation is one major mechanism by which chromatin structure and function are regulated. Besides histones, many nonhistone proteins are also acetylated in vivo. Aberrant acetylation has been linked to the development of various human diseases. Through acetylating histone and nonhistone proteins, histone acetyltransferases (HATs) play fundamental roles in regulating chromatin remodeling, transcription, and other nuclear processes. Known HATs belong to several groups, including the GCN5/PCAF, p300/CBP, and MYST families. ESA1, SAS3, MOF, TIP60, HBO1, MOZ, and MORF are the MYST family members with demonstrated HAT activity. The MOZ and MORF genes are rearranged by chromosome abnormalities associated with several types of leukemia, so these two HATs have been implicated in leukemogenesis. Compared with p300, CBP, and PCAF, much less is known about MOZ and MORF. To elucidate the function and regulation of these two interesting HATs, we have conducted their initial characterization. Here we describe the expression, purification, and activity analysis of MOZ and MORF. For comparison, we also include the procedure for expression and purification of PCAF. These methods are useful not only for functional characterization of MOZ, MORF, PCAF, and other HATs, but also for preparation of HAT proteins to screen compound libraries and obtain inhibitors with potential therapeutic value.