Context-based modulations of 3D vision are expertise dependent.

An object's identity can influence depth-position judgments. The mechanistic underpinnings underlying this phenomenon are largely unknown. Here, we asked whether context-dependent modulations of stereoscopic depth perception are expertise dependent. In 2 experiments, we tested whether training that attaches meaning (i.e. classification labels) to otherwise novel, stereoscopically presented objects changes observers' sensitivity for judging their depth position. In Experiment 1, observers were randomly assigned to 3 groups: a Greeble-classification training group, an orientation-discrimination training group, or a no-training group, and were tested on their stereoscopic depth sensitivity before and after training. In Experiment 2, participants were tested before and after training while fMRI responses were concurrently imaged. Behaviorally, stereoscopic performance was significantly better following Greeble-classification (but not orientation-discrimination, or no-) training. Using the fMRI data, we trained support vector machines to predict whether the data were from the pre- or post-training sessions. Results indicated that classification accuracies in V4 were higher for the Greeble-classification group as compared with the orientation-discrimination group for which accuracies were at chance level. Furthermore, classification accuracies in V4 were negatively correlated with response times for Greeble identification. We speculate that V4 is implicated in an expertise-dependent, object-tuning manner that allows it to better guide stereoscopic depth retrieval.

Sound-modulations of visual motion perception implicate the cortico-vestibular brain.

A widely used example of the intricate (yet poorly understood) intertwining of multisensory signals in the brain is the audiovisual bounce inducing effect (ABE). This effect presents two identical objects moving along the azimuth with uniform motion and towards opposite directions. The perceptual interpretation of the motion is ambiguous and is modulated if a transient (sound) is presented in coincidence with the point of overlap of the two objects' motion trajectories. This phenomenon has long been written-off to simple attentional or decision-making mechanisms, although the neurological underpinnings for the effect are not well understood. Using behavioural metrics concurrently with event-related fMRI, we show that sound-induced modulations of motion perception can be further modulated by changing motion dynamics of the visual targets. The phenomenon engages the posterior parietal cortex and the parieto-insular-vestibular cortical complex, with a close correspondence of activity in these regions with behaviour. These findings suggest that the insular cortex is engaged in deriving a probabilistic perceptual solution through the integration of multisensory data.

The human posterior cingulate and the stress-response benefits of viewing green urban landscapes.

The mechanistic and neural bases of why green environments drive positive mental health outcomes remain poorly understood. We show that viewing green urban landscapes that vary in terms of green-space density elicits corresponding changes in the activity of the human ventral posterior cingulate cortex that is correlated to behavioural stress-related responses. We further show that cingulate responses are engaged early in the processing cascade, influencing attentional and executive regions in a predominantly feedforward manner. Our data suggest a key role for this region in regulating (nature) dose-dependent changes in stress responses, potentially through its extensive connections to the prefrontal and hippocampal regions which in turn project towards the neuroendocrine system. As the posterior cingulate cortex is implicated in a variety of neurological diseases and disorders, these findings raise a therapeutic potential for natural environmental exposure, highlighting green-cover as a modifiable element that links to changes in limbic responses, and has health consequences for practitioners and city-planners alike.

Human Depth Sensitivity Is Affected by Object Plausibility.

Using behavioral and fMRI paradigms, we asked how the physical plausibility of complex 3-D objects, as defined by the object's congruence with 3-D Euclidean geometry, affects behavioral thresholds and neural responses to depth information. Stimuli were disparity-defined geometric objects rendered as random dot stereograms, presented in plausible and implausible variations. In the behavior experiment, observers were asked to complete (1) a noise-based depth task that involved judging the depth position of a target embedded in noise and (2) a fine depth judgment task that involved discriminating the nearer of two consecutively presented targets. Interestingly, results indicated greater behavioral sensitivities of depth judgments for implausible versus plausible objects across both tasks. In the fMRI experiment, we measured fMRI responses concurrently with behavioral depth responses. Although univariate responses for depth judgments were largely similar across cortex regardless of object plausibility, multivariate representations for plausible and implausible objects were notably distinguishable along depth-relevant intermediate regions V3 and V3A, in addition to object-relevant LOC. Our data indicate significant modulations of both behavioral judgments of and neural responses to depth by object context. We conjecture that disparity mechanisms interact dynamically with the object recognition problem in the visual system such that disparity computations are adjusted based on object familiarity.

The pontine-driven somatic gaze tract contributes to affective processing in humans.

The relevance of subcortical structures for affective processing is not fully understood. Inspired by the gerbil retino-raphe pathway that has been shown to regulate affective behavior and previous human work showing that the pontine region is important for processing emotion, we asked whether well-established tracts in humans traveling between the eye and the brain stem contribute to functions beyond their conventionally understood roles. Here we report neuroimaging findings showing that optic chiasm-brain stem diffusivity predict responses reflecting perceived arousal and valence. Analyses of subsequent task-evoked connectivity further revealed that visual affective processing implicates the brain stem, particularly the pontine region at an early stage of the cascade, projecting to cortico-limbic regions in a feedforward manner. The optimal model implies that all intrinsic connections between the regions of interest are unidirectional and outwards from the pontine region. These findings suggest that affective processing implicates regions outside the cortico-limbic network. The involvement of a phylogenetically older locus in the pons that has consequences in oculomotor control may imply adaptive consequences of affect detection.

Color contrast adaptation: fMRI fails to predict behavioral adaptation.

fMRI-adaptation is a valuable tool for inferring the selectivity of neural responses. Here we use it in human color vision to test the selectivity of responses to S-cone opponent (blue-yellow), L/M-cone opponent (red-green), and achromatic (Ach) contrast across nine regions of interest in visual cortex. We measure psychophysical adaptation, using comparable stimuli to the fMRI-adaptation, and find significant selective adaptation for all three stimulus types, implying separable visual responses to each. For fMRI-adaptation, we find robust adaptation but, surprisingly, much less selectivity due to high levels of cross-stimulus adaptation in all conditions. For all BY and Ach test/adaptor pairs, selectivity is absent across all ROIs. For RG/Ach stimulus pairs, this paradigm has previously shown selectivity for RG in ventral areas and for Ach in dorsal areas. For chromatic stimulus pairs (RG/BY), we find a trend for selectivity in ventral areas. In conclusion, we find an overall lack of correspondence between BOLD and behavioral adaptation suggesting they reflect different aspects of the underlying neural processes. For example, raised cross-stimulus adaptation in fMRI may reflect adaptation of the broadly-tuned normalization pool. Finally, we also identify a longer-timescale adaptation (1h) in both BOLD and behavioral data. This is greater for chromatic than achromatic contrast. The longer-timescale BOLD effect was more evident in the higher ventral areas than in V1, consistent with increasing windows of temporal integration for higher-order areas.

Cortical and subcortical responses to biological motion.

Using fMRI and multivariate analyses we sought to understand the neural representations of articulated body shape and local kinematics in biological motion. We show that in addition to a cortical network that includes areas identified previously for biological motion perception, including the posterior superior temporal sulcus, inferior frontal gyrus, and ventral body areas, the ventral lateral nucleus, a presumably motoric thalamic area is sensitive to both form and kinematic information in biological motion. Our findings suggest that biological motion perception is not achieved as an end-point of segregated cortical form and motion networks as often suggested, but instead involves earlier parts in the visual system including a subcortical network.

Color responses and their adaptation in human superior colliculus and lateral geniculate nucleus.

We use an fMRI adaptation paradigm to explore the selectivity of human responses in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and superior colliculus (SC) to red-green color and achromatic contrast. We measured responses to red-green (RG) and achromatic (ACH) high contrast sinewave counter-phasing rings with and without adaptation, within a block design. The signal for the RG test stimulus was reduced following both RG and ACH adaptation, whereas the signal for the ACH test was unaffected by either adaptor. These results provide compelling evidence that the human LGN and SC have significant capacity for color adaptation. Since in the LGN red-green responses are mediated by P cells, these findings are in contrast to earlier neurophysiological data from non-human primates that have shown weak or no contrast adaptation in the P pathway. Cross-adaptation of the red-green color response by achromatic contrast suggests unselective response adaptation and points to a dual role for P cells in responding to both color and achromatic contrast. We further show that subcortical adaptation is not restricted to the geniculostriate system, but is also present in the superior colliculus (SC), an oculomotor region that until recently, has been thought to be color-blind. Our data show that the human SC not only responds to red-green color contrast, but like the LGN, shows reliable but unselective adaptation.

Look but don't touch: Visual cues to surface structure drive somatosensory cortex.

When planning interactions with nearby objects, our brain uses visual information to estimate shape, material composition, and surface structure before we come into contact with them. Here we analyse brain activations elicited by different types of visual appearance, measuring fMRI responses to objects that are glossy, matte, rough, or textured. In addition to activation in visual areas, we found that fMRI responses are evoked in the secondary somatosensory area (S2) when looking at glossy and rough surfaces. This activity could be reliably discriminated on the basis of tactile-related visual properties (gloss, rough, and matte), but importantly, other visual properties (i.e., coloured texture) did not substantially change fMRI activity. The activity could not be solely due to tactile imagination, as asking explicitly to imagine such surface properties did not lead to the same results. These findings suggest that visual cues to an object's surface properties evoke activity in neural circuits associated with tactile stimulation. This activation may reflect the a-priori probability of the physics of the interaction (i.e., the expectation of upcoming friction) that can be used to plan finger placement and grasp force.

The selectivity of responses to red-green colour and achromatic contrast in the human visual cortex: an fMRI adaptation study.

There is controversy as to how responses to colour in the human brain are organized within the visual pathways. A key issue is whether there are modular pathways that respond selectively to colour or whether there are common neural substrates for both colour and achromatic (Ach) contrast. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) adaptation to investigate the responses of early and extrastriate visual areas to colour and Ach contrast. High-contrast red-green (RG) and Ach sinewave rings (0.5 cycles/degree, 2 Hz) were used as both adapting stimuli and test stimuli in a block design. We found robust adaptation to RG or Ach contrast in all visual areas. Cross-adaptation between RG and Ach contrast occurred in all areas indicating the presence of integrated, colour and Ach responses. Notably, we revealed contrasting trends for the two test stimuli. For the RG test, unselective processing (robust adaptation to both RG and Ach contrast) was most evident in the early visual areas (V1 and V2), but selective responses, revealed as greater adaptation between the same stimuli than cross-adaptation between different stimuli, emerged in the ventral cortex, in V4 and VO in particular. For the Ach test, unselective responses were again most evident in early visual areas but Ach selectivity emerged in the dorsal cortex (V3a and hMT+). Our findings support a strong presence of integrated mechanisms for colour and Ach contrast across the visual hierarchy, with a progression towards selective processing in extrastriate visual areas.

Mechanisms for extracting a signal from noise as revealed through the specificity and generality of task training.

Visual judgments critically depend on (1) the detection of meaningful items from cluttered backgrounds and (2) the discrimination of an item from highly similar alternatives. Learning and experience are known to facilitate these processes, but the specificity with which these processes operate is poorly understood. Here we use psychophysical measures of human participants to test learning in two types of commonly used tasks that target segmentation (signal-in-noise, or "coarse" tasks) versus the discrimination of highly similar items (feature difference, or "fine" tasks). First, we consider the processing of binocular disparity signals, examining performance on signal-in-noise and feature difference tasks after a period of training on one of these tasks. Second, we consider the generality of learning between different visual features, testing performance on both task types for displays defined by disparity, motion, or orientation. We show that training on a feature difference task also improves performance on signal-in-noise tasks, but only for the same visual feature. By contrast, training on a signal-in-noise task has limited benefits for fine judgments of the same feature but supports learning that generalizes to signal-in-noise tasks for other features. These findings indicate that commonly used signal-in-noise tasks require at least three distinct components: feature representations, signal-specific selection, and a generalized process that enhances segmentation. As such, there is clear potential to harness areas of commonality (both within and between cues) to improve impaired perceptual functions.

The neurostructural consequences of glaucoma and their overlap with disorders exhibiting emotional dysregulations: A voxel-based meta-analysis and tripartite system model.

BACKGROUND: Glaucoma, a progressive neurodegenerative disorder leading to irreversible blindness, is associated with heightened rates of generalized anxiety and depression. This study aims to comprehensively investigate brain morphological changes in glaucoma patients, extending beyond visual processing areas, and explores overlaps with morphological alterations observed in anxiety and depression. METHODS: A comparative meta-analysis was conducted, using case-control studies of brain structural integrity in glaucoma patients. We aimed to identify regions with gray matter volume (GMV) changes, examine their role within distinct large-scale networks, and assess overlap with alterations in generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and major depressive disorder (MDD). RESULTS: Glaucoma patients exhibited significant GMV reductions in visual processing regions (lingual gyrus, thalamus). Notably, volumetric reductions extended beyond visual systems, encompassing the left putamen and insula. Behavioral and functional network decoding revealed distinct large-scale networks, implicating visual, motivational, and affective domains. The insular region, linked to pain and affective processes, displayed reductions overlapping with alterations observed in GAD. LIMITATIONS: While the study identified significant morphological alterations, the number of studies from both the glaucoma and GAD cohorts remains limited due to the lack of independent studies meeting our inclusion criteria. CONCLUSION: The study proposes a tripartite brain model for glaucoma, with visual processing changes related to the lingual gyrus and additional alterations in the putamen and insular regions tied to emotional or motivational functions. These neuroanatomical changes extend beyond the visual system, implying broader implications for brain structure and potential pathological developments, providing insights into the overall neurological consequences of glaucoma.

Glaucoma Rehabilitation using ElectricAI Transcranial Stimulation (GREAT)-study protocol for randomized controlled trial using combined perceptual learning and transcranial electrical stimulation for vision enhancement.

BACKGROUND: Glaucoma patients with irreversible visual field loss often experience decreased quality of life, impaired mobility, and mental health challenges. Perceptual learning (PL) and transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) have emerged as promising interventions for vision rehabilitation, showing potential in restoring residual visual functions. The Glaucoma Rehabilitation using ElectricAI Transcranial stimulation (GREAT) project aims to investigate whether combining PL and tES is more effective than using either method alone in maximizing the visual function of glaucoma patients. Additionally, the study will assess the impact of these interventions on brain neural activity, blood biomarkers, mobility, mental health, quality of life, and fear of falling. METHODS: The study employs a three-arm, double-blind, randomized, superiority-controlled design. Participants are randomly allocated in a 1:1:1 ratio to one of three groups receiving: (1) real PL and real tES, (2) real PL and sham tES, and (3) placebo PL and sham tES. Each participant undergoes 10 sessions per block (~ 1 h each), with a total of three blocks. Assessments are conducted at six time points: baseline, interim 1, interim 2, post-intervention, 1-month post-intervention, and 2-month post-intervention. The primary outcome is the mean deviation of the 24-2 visual field measured by the Humphrey visual field analyzer. Secondary outcomes include detection rate in the suprathreshold visual field, balance and gait functions, and electrophysiological and biological responses. This study also investigates changes in neurotransmitter metabolism, biomarkers, self-perceived quality of life, and psychological status before and after the intervention. DISCUSSION: The GREAT project is the first study to assess the effectiveness of PL and tES in the rehabilitation of glaucoma. Our findings will offer comprehensive assessments of the impact of these treatments on a wide range of brain and vision-related metrics including visual field, neural activity, biomarkers, mobility, mental health, fear of falling, and quality of life. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05874258 . Registered on May 15, 2023.

Sensory eye dominance plasticity in the human adult visual cortex.

Sensory eye dominance occurs when the visual cortex weighs one eye's data more heavily than those of the other. Encouragingly, mechanisms underlying sensory eye dominance in human adults retain a certain degree of plasticity. Notably, perceptual training using dichoptically presented motion signal-noise stimuli has been shown to elicit changes in sensory eye dominance both in visually impaired and normal observers. However, the neural mechanisms underlying these learning-driven improvements are not well understood. Here, we measured changes in fMRI responses before and after a five-day visual training protocol to determine the neuroplastic changes along the visual cascade. Fifty visually normal observers received training on a dichoptic or binocular variant of a signal-in-noise (left-right) motion discrimination task over five consecutive days. We show significant shifts in sensory eye dominance following training, but only for those who received dichoptic training. Pattern analysis of fMRI responses revealed that responses of V1 and hMT+ predicted sensory eye dominance for both groups, but only before training. After dichoptic (but not binocular) visual training, responses of V1 changed significantly, and were no longer able to predict sensory eye dominance. Our data suggest that perceptual training-driven changes in eye dominance are driven by a reweighting of the two eyes' data in the primary visual cortex. These findings may provide insight into developing region-targeted rehabilitative paradigms for the visually impaired, particularly those with severe binocular imbalance.

Life Detection From Biological Motion.

Life motion, the active movements of people and other animals, contains a wealth of information that is potentially accessible to the visual system of an observer. Biological-motion point-light displays have been widely used to study both the information contained in life motion stimuli and the visual mechanisms that make use of it. Biological motion conveys motion-mediated dynamic shape, which in turn can be used for identification and recognition of the agent, but it also contains local visual invariants that humans and other animals use as a general detection system that signals the presence of other agents in the visual environment. Here, we review recent research on behavioral, neurophysiological, and genetic aspects of this life-detection system and discuss its functional significance in the light of earlier hypotheses.

Neural Correlates of Sensory Eye Dominance in Human Visual White Matter Tracts.

A significant proportion of the human neurotypical population exhibits some degree of sensory eye dominance (SED), referring to the brain's preferential processing of one eye's input versus another. The neural substrates underlying this functional imbalance are not well known. Here, we investigated the relationship between visual white matter tract properties and SED in the human neurotypical population. Observers' performance on two commonly used dichoptic tasks were used to index SED, along with performance on a third task to address a functional implication of binocular imbalance: stereovision. We show that diffusivity metrics of the optic radiations (ORs) well predict behavioral SED metrics. We found no relationship between SED and stereosensitivity. Our data suggest that SED is not simply reflected by gray matter structural and functional alterations, as often suggested, but relates, at least in part to the microstructural properties of thalamocortical white matter.

Uncovering the Locus of Object-Context-Based Modulations in Depth Processing Using Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation.

Neural responses of dorsal visual area V7 and lateral occipital complex (LOC) have been shown to correlate with changes in behavioral metrics of depth sensitivity observed as a function of object context, although it is unclear as to whether the behavioral manifestation results from an alteration of early depth-specific responses in V7 or arises as a result of alterations of object-level representations at LOC that subsequently feed back to affect disparity readouts in dorsal cortex. Here, we used online transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to examine the roles of these two areas in giving rise to context-disparity interactions. Stimuli were disparity-defined geometric objects rendered as random-dot stereograms, presented in geometrically plausible and implausible variations. Observers' sensitivity to depth (depth discrimination) or object identity (plausibility discrimination) was indexed while receiving repetitive TMS at one of the two sites of interest (V7, LOC) along with a control site (Cz). TMS over LOC produced results no different from TMS over baseline Cz (and prior no-TMS behavioral work). That is, depth sensitivity was higher for implausible versus plausible objects. Strikingly, TMS over V7 abolished differences in depth sensitivity for implausible versus plausible objects. V7 serves as a key locus in bringing stereosensitivity changes because of object context, perhaps by reweighing stereoscopic data en route to informing object-motoric interactions.

Amygdala-pons connectivity is hyperactive and associated with symptom severity in depression.

Knowledge of the neural underpinnings of processing sad information and how it differs in people with depression could elucidate the neural mechanisms perpetuating sad mood in depression. Here, we conduct a 7 T fMRI study to delineate the neural correlates involved only in processing sad information, including pons, amygdala, and corticolimbic regions. We then conduct a 3 T fMRI study to examine the resting-state connectivity in another sample of people with and without depression. Only clinically depressed people demonstrate hyperactive amygdala-pons connectivity. Furthermore, this connectivity is related to depression symptom severity and is a significant indicator of depression. We speculate that visual sad information reinforces depressed mood and stimulates the pons, strengthening the amygdala-pons connectivity. The relationship between this connectivity and depressive symptom severity suggests that guiding one's visual attention and processing of sad information may benefit mood regulation.

Body configuration modulates the usage of local cues to direction in biological-motion perception.

The presence of information in a visual display does not guarantee its use by the visual system. Studies of inversion effects in both face recognition and biological-motion perception have shown that the same information may be used by observers when it is presented in an upright display but not used when the display is inverted. In our study, we tested the inversion effect in scrambled biological-motion displays to investigate mechanisms that validate information contained in the local motion of a point-light walker. Using novel biological-motion stimuli that contained no configural cues to the direction in which a walker was facing, we found that manipulating the relative vertical location of the walker's feet significantly affected observers' performance on a direction-discrimination task. Our data demonstrate that, by themselves, local cues can almost unambiguously indicate the facing direction of the agent in biological-motion stimuli. Additionally, we document a noteworthy interaction between local and global information and offer a new explanation for the effect of local inversion in biological-motion perception.

Dichoptic Perceptual Training and Sensory Eye Dominance Plasticity in Normal Vision.

Purpose: We introduce a set of dichoptic training tasks that differ in terms of (1) the presence of external noise and (2) the visual feature implicated (motion, orientation), examining the generality of training effects between the different training and test cues and their capacity for driving changes in sensory eye dominance and stereoscopic depth perception. Methods: We randomly assigned 116 normal-sighted observers to five groups (four training groups and one no training group). All groups completed both pre- and posttests, during which they were tested on dichoptic motion and orientation tasks under noisy and noise-free conditions, as well as a binocular phase combination task and two depth tasks to index sensory eye dominance and binocular function. Training groups received visual training on one of the four dichoptic tasks over 3 consecutive days. Results: Training under noise-free conditions supported generalization of learning to noise-free tasks involving an untrained feature. By contrast, there was a symmetric learning transfer between the signal-noise and no-noise tasks within the same visual feature. Further, training on all tasks reduced sensory eye dominance but did not improve depth perception. Conclusions: Training-driven changes in sensory eye balance do not depend on the stimulus feature or whether the training entails the presence of external noise. We conjecture that dichoptic visual training acts to balance interocular suppression before or at the site of binocular combination.