Psychometric Properties of the MMPI-3 in a Sample of Black and White American Undergraduate Students: Examining Group Differences and Convergent/Discriminant Validity with the ASEBA Adult Self-Report.

The current study examined MMPI-3 internal and external psychometric properties with a focus on the impact of racialized group membership (Black and White Americans). The second aim was to examine convergent/discriminant MMPI-3 scale associations with a different broadband, hierarchical self-report assessment tool [Adult Self-Report (ASR)]. Consistent with findings on prior MMPI iterations, we expected to observe no clinically meaningful mean differences on MMPI-3 scale T-scores. We hypothesized that validity coefficients between MMPI-3 and ASR scales measuring similar constructs would be stronger (convergent validity) and the inverse for scales measuring disparate constructs (discriminant validity). We also expected coefficient magnitude consistency across racial groups. The final sample was composed of 254 undergraduates (74.4% female; 63.8% White, 36.2% Black). Results suggest 1) MMPI-3 substantive scale mean T-scores are comparable between White and Black American undergraduates; 2) MMPI-3 scales correlate with ASR scale scores in expected ways with regard to internalizing problems, rule breaking and impulsivity, thought problems, and substance use (but not overall externalizing, aggression, attention problems, and intrusiveness); and 3) convergent and discriminant associations between MMPI-3 and ASR scales are consistent across White and Black Americans. This work provides support for MMPI-3 use with racially diverse individuals, considers next steps for understanding MMPI-3 scale score functioning in diverse populations, and provides novel information on MMPI-3 correspondence with the ASR.

Evaluating Measures of Externalizing Personality Pathology Traits in Black and White American Adolescents in a Program for at-Risk Youths.

Adolescent personality assessment measures can aid in the identification of traits that are associated with various types of maladjustment. Externalizing personality pathology traits (e.g., antisocial, borderline, and narcissistic personality disorder features) are particularly relevant for many problematic outcomes, yet measures that assess these traits have not been validated extensively in diverse samples. The present study aimed to examine the properties of measures of externalizing personality pathology traits in a sample of White (n = 184) and Black (n = 99) adolescents participating in a residential program for at-risk youth. The fit of the proposed structure for these measures was tested in the sample as a whole and in each racial group separately. Associations between these measures and the count of disciplinary infractions received while in the program were also tested. Measures were found to have less than optimal fit in this sample, especially among Black adolescents. Suggestions for future research and clinical use of these measures are discussed.

Using the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent in Legal Settings.

The Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (PAI-A; Morey et al., 2007) is a self-report measure of personality and psychopathology appropriate for use with individuals aged 12-18. It is modeled after the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991), a measure widely used with adults in clinical and legal settings. The PAI-A assesses a variety of features that have utility in legal settings, including validity scales that assess approach to testing, clinical scales measuring common types of psychopathology, and treatment consideration scales that provide indicators of treatment motivation and other factors that may be important for predicting outcomes. The PAI-A has been included in a limited number of research studies and few of those have focused on justice-involved youths. Additionally, because juvenile court records are not typically publicly available, there is limited information about the PAI-A available in case law. This manuscript reviews the properties, strengths, and weaknesses of the PAI-A and its existing literature. Factors for mental health and legal professionals to consider in relation to the admissibility of this measure, questioning and cross-examination, and how the PAI-A may be received in court are also discussed.

Understanding At-Risk Youths: Average PAI-A Scores and Their Associations with Impulsivity-Related Constructs.

The purpose of this study was to extend research on the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (PAI-A; Morey, 2007) to include an examination of mean PAI-A results and associations between the PAI-A and indicators of impulsivity in a large sample of at-risk adolescents (Mage = 16.75; 79% male; 64% Caucasian) in a military-style residential program. Included in this study are archival records for a diverse sample of 497 youths who participated in the program during a 2-year period. Average T scores on PAI-A scales ranged from 44.67 to 65.41. Moderate to large positive associations (rs = .30-.65) were found between relevant PAI-A scales and both UPPS-P scales and self-reported substance use. There were smaller effects (r = .17) for associations between the PAI-A and program disciplinary infractions. Small to large group differences (ds = .19-.93) on PAI-A scales differentiated youths who had experience with arrests or NSSI from those who did not. This study provides information about the under-studied but vulnerable youths occupying the space between the normative population and youths with identified clinical or legal problems. It also clarifies how impulsivity and impulsivity-related behaviors may be represented on the PAI-A.

The Validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent in Assessing Callous-Unemotional Traits in At-Risk Adolescents.

This study examines the validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (PAI-A; Morey) in assessing callous-unemotional (CU) traits within two independent samples of at-risk adolescents from a residential intervention program. The study tests the extent to which CU traits are represented within PAI-A scales with respect to empirically- or theoretically-related indicators, such as antisociality, aggression, low warmth, low social connectedness, and subdued internalizing psychopathology. The PAI-A substantive scales statistically accounted for an average of 55.0% of the variance in total scores on the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU; Frick) across samples. Broadly, PAI-A substantive scales evinced theoretically-consistent relations with CU traits. Consistent with expectations, CU traits were broadly related to PAI-A-assessed constructs of antisocial features, aggression, low warmth and social disconnection, but not to subdued internalizing symptoms. Moreover, some of the PAI-A clinical, treatment consideration, and interpersonal scales or subscales demonstrated differential relations across the traits. Implications for assessment of CU traits using the PAI framework are discussed. Overall, this research adds to the literature on CU traits in broadband personality assessment and provides a foundation for future research on CU traits using the PAI-A.

Early Adolescent Trajectories of Impulsiveness and Sensation Seeking in Children of Fathers with Histories of Alcohol and Other Substance Use Disorders.

BACKGROUND: Problem substance use often begins in adolescence. This vulnerability likely stems, at least partially, from relatively rapid increases in sensation seeking occurring in early to mid-adolescence and more gradual improvements in impulse control occurring through later adolescence. Better understanding how these processes develop in high-risk youth may lead to enhanced substance use disorder treatment and prevention strategies. METHODS: We characterized trajectories of self-reported impulsivity and sensation seeking in 305 FH+ youths who at minimum had a father with a history of alcohol or other drug use disorders and 81 youths with no family histories of substance use disorders (FH-). Assessments started at ages 10 to 12 and continued at 6-month intervals for up to 42 months. In addition, a subset of 58 FH+ youths who began alcohol or other drug use before age 15 (FH+ Users) were compared to 58 FH+ propensity-matched adolescents who did not initiate substance use before age 15 (FH+ Non-Users). RESULTS: Compared to FH- youths at preadolescence, FH+ youths reported higher general impulsivity and higher impulsivity related to poor planning and attention. Over time, there were no differential effects of FH status on changes in impulsivity or sensation seeking across adolescence. FH+ Users had smaller decreases in general impulsivity and impulsivity related to restlessness and fidgeting across adolescence than FH+ Non-Users. FH+ Users also had greater increases in sensation seeking across adolescence than FH+ Non-Users. CONCLUSIONS: Increased impulsivity in FH+ youths may make them less able to regulate sensation seeking drives that peak in adolescence, which may contribute to their high risk for developing substance use disorders. Additionally, FH+ adolescents who initiate early use may be at increased risk in part due to increased impulsivity coupled with greater increases in sensation seeking.

Child Problems as a Moderator of Relations Between Maternal Impulsivity and Family Environment in a High-Risk Sample.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have suggested that maternal characteristics are related to family environment; however, the relation between maternal impulsivity, in particular, and family environment is not well understood. As such, we examined direct relations between maternal impulsivity and family environment, as well as whether the relation between maternal impulsivity and family environment was moderated by child problems for sons and daughters. We hypothesized that child problems would moderate the association between maternal impulsivity and family environment. We also explored whether these associations differ for boys and girls. METHOD: Data from the initial visit of a longitudinal study was used for the current study. Participants included 297 youth (137 boys; 160 girls) of 10 to 12 years of age (M = 10.99, SD = .84) and their mothers. The majority of the sample had a family history of substance use disorder (n = 236). RESULTS: Hierarchical linear regressions showed that for sons there was a significant interaction between maternal impulsivity and child problems on family environment. Maternal impulsivity was positively related to family environment problems among sons with few emotional and behavioral problems, but there was no significant correlation among sons with high problem levels. Among daughters, there was no significant interaction between maternal impulsivity and child emotional and behavioral problems on family environment. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the association between maternal impulsivity and family environment may depend on problem level and child gender. Thus, addressing maternal impulsivity in therapy may benefit some families.

Family Functioning as a Mediator of Relations between Family History of Substance Use Disorder and Impulsivity.

Impulsivity is strongly related to the development of adolescent substance use. Therefore, understanding factors that influence impulsive characteristics is important for the development of prevention and intervention programs. Intervention and prevention programs focused on factors that influence impulsive characteristics are especially important for those at particularly high risk for the expression of impulsivity - those with a family history of substance use disorder. A factor of particular interest is family functioning. AIM: To examine family functioning as a mediator of relations between having a family history of substance use disorder and impulsivity. METHODS: Participants included a majority Hispanic sample of pre-adolescent boys and girls (mean age 10.99, SD = .84) recruited from the community who did (FH+) and did not (FH-) have a family history of substance use disorder. FH status and the quality of family functioning were compared at the initial visit with impulsiveness assessed a year later. RESULTS: Results showed FH+ children had worse family functioning; worse family functioning was related to higher levels of impulsivity, and higher levels of impulsivity among FH+ children were due to the influence of family functioning on levels of impulsivity. In other words, family functioning mediated relations between having a family history of substance use disorder and impulsivity. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that higher levels of impulsivity in FH+ children are due in part to worse family functioning.

Pubertal Maturation Compression and Behavioral Impulsivity among Boys at Increased Risk for Substance Use.

OBJECTIVES: While early onset of puberty among girls has been related to substance use involvement and other adverse outcomes, less research has examined pubertal development and outcomes in boys. Further, research on puberty has not been conducted in the context of other risk factors for substance use involvement such as impulsivity. To address these gaps, this study characterized boys' pubertal development from preadolescence to mid-adolescence and related it to substance use risk and behavioral impulsivity. METHODS: A sample of 153 boys completed the Pubertal Development Scale to assess perception of their pubertal development relative to same age peers from ages 10 to 16 years, at 6-month intervals. Group-based trajectory modeling identified three distinct patterns of pubertal development: boys with more slowly developing boys with either earlier (n = 54) or later (n = 43) pubertal timing, and boys with faster tempo of pubertal development (n = 56). The groups were compared on demographic and substance use risk characteristics, as well as behavioral measures of impulsivity. RESULTS: Boys who had the accelerated progression through puberty had the highest proportion of family histories of substance use disorder and perform more impulsively on reward choice measures. CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes are consistent within the Maturation Compression Hypothesis and social neuroscience models of adolescent developmental risk.

Clinical and Social/Environmental Characteristics in a Community Sample of Children With and Without Family Histories of Substance Use Disorder in the San Antonio Area: A Descriptive Study.

This is a descriptive study of the recruitment and clinical/environmental characteristics of a child cohort (ages 10-12) established to test transmission of impulsivity in children with (FH+; n = 305) and without (FH-; n = 81) family history of substance use disorder. Among this cohort FH+ children had more emotional and behavioral symptoms, worse family relationships, and more deviant peers compared to FH- children. This cohort of children was established prior to the initiation of regular substance use and significant clinical problems, which will allow the opportunity to examine reciprocal relations between development of impulse control and substance use development.

Behavioral Impulsivity and Risk-Taking Trajectories Across Early Adolescence in Youths With and Without Family Histories of Alcohol and Other Drug Use Disorders.

BACKGROUND: Youths with family histories of alcohol and other drug use disorders (FH+) are at increased susceptibility for developing substance use disorders relative to those without such histories (FH-). This vulnerability may be related to impaired adolescent development of impulse control and elevated risk-taking. However, no previous studies have prospectively examined impulse control and risk-taking in FH+ youth across adolescence. METHODS: A total of 386 pre-adolescents (305 FH+, 81 FH-; aged 10 to 12) with no histories of regular alcohol or other drug use were compared on behavioral measures of impulsivity including delay discounting, response initiation (Immediate Memory Task), response inhibition impulsivity (GoStop Impulsivity Paradigm), and risk-taking (Balloon Analogue Risk Task-Youth). Youths completed these laboratory tasks every 6 months, allowing for the examination of 10- to 15-year-olds. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to characterize the development of impulse control and risk-taking as shown in performance of these tasks throughout adolescence. RESULTS: We found that (i) FH+ youths had increased levels of delay discounting and response inhibition impulsivity at study entry; (ii) regardless of FH status, all youths had relatively stable delay discounting across time, improvements in response inhibition and response initiation impulsivity, and increased risk-taking; and (iii) although FH+ youths had increased response inhibition impulsivity at pre-adolescence, these differences were negligible by mid-adolescence. CONCLUSIONS: Heightened delay discounting in FH+ pre-adolescents coupled with normal adolescent increases in risk-taking may contribute to their increased susceptibility toward problem substance use in adolescence.

Increased Pre- and Early-Adolescent Stress in Youth with a Family History of Substance Use Disorder and Early Substance Use Initiation.

Individuals with a family history of substance use disorders (Family History Positive) are more likely to have early-onset substance use (i.e., prior to age 15), which may contribute to their higher rates of substance use disorders. One factor that may differentiate Family History Positive youth who engage in early-onset substance use from other Family History Positive youth is exposure to stressors. The aim of this study was to quantify how exposure to stressors from age 11-15 varies as a function of family history of substance use disorders and early-onset substance use. Self-reported stressors were prospectively compared in a sample of predominately (78.9%) Hispanic youth that included 68 Family History Positive youth (50% female) who initiated substance use by age 15 and demographically matched non-users with (n = 136; 52.9% female) and without (n = 75; 54.7% female) family histories of substance use disorders. Stressors were assessed at 6-month intervals for up to 4 years. Both the severity of stressors and the degree to which stressors were caused by an individual's own behavior were evaluated. All three groups differed from one another in overall exposure to stressors and rates of increase in stressors over time, with Family History Positive youth who engaged in early-onset substance use reporting the greatest exposure to stressors. Group differences were more pronounced for stressors caused by the participants' behavior. Family History Positive users had higher cumulative severity of stressors of this type, both overall and across time. These results indicate greater exposure to stressors among Family History Positive youth with early-onset substance use, and suggest that higher rates of behavior-dependent stressors may be particularly related to early-onset use.

Confirming Eight-Factor Structure of the Substance Use Motives Measure in a Sample of US College Students.

The 2020 National Survey on Drug Use indicates nearly three quarters of individuals ages 18-25 have used substances in the past year. Research suggests individuals who use substances to cope with negative mood states are typically more substance-involved, report more psychological distress, and have a more extensive treatment history. Additionally, the high rate of polysubstance use among substance using adults in the U.S. highlights the need for broadband measures that can adequately capture use, consequences, and motivations for use of multiple substances. However, most measures assessing motives for use are typically substance specific. Recently, Biolcati and Passini (2019) developed a brief, but comprehensive model of broad substance use motives (i.e., Substance Use Motives Measure, SUMM) based on well-established motives questionnaires (e.g., DMQ-R, MMQ). They found support for their proposed eight-factor model in an online sample of Italian citizens (ages 18-60). No studies to date have examined the psychometric properties of the SUMM with an English-speaking or US college student sample. The current study evaluates the factor structure of the SUMM in a sample of 143 college students (74.8% female, 77.6% White, and 94.4% non-Hispanic/Latinx) at a large, southeastern university in the United States. Results of a confirmatory factor analysis showed support for the previously identified eight-factor structure for the SUMM, with acceptable model fit and internal consistency of each factor found. Findings support using the SUMM as a broad measure of substance use motives, but more research is needed to assess measurement invariance across different groups and to evaluate external, concurrent, and convergent validity using other well-established measures of substance use motives, severity, and psychiatric symptomatology.

Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) scale: A Latent Profile Analysis with At-Risk Adolescents.

The Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD; Salekin in Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat 7:180-191, 2016) scale was designed to assess interrelated psychopathic trait domains in conjunction with symptoms of Conduct Disorder (CD) in children and adolescents (i.e., grandiose-manipulative, callous-unemotional, daring-impulsive). Variable-centered studies have provided support for a four-factor PSCD structure (Salekin et al. in Psychol Assess 34(10):985-992, 2022) in line with other adolescent and adult studies. The current person-centered study used latent profile analysis of the PSCD domains to examine whether theoretically meaningful and empirically robust PSCD subtypes emerged from a diverse sample (70.9% White, 20.1% Black, 3.6% Hispanic, and 5.4% other) of adolescents (modal age = 17) in a military style residential facility (N = 409; Males = 80.6%). As hypothesized, a four-class solution was best, consistent with adult psychopathy subtyping research (Hare et al. in Handbook of Psychopathy 39-79, 2018; Roy et al. in Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat, in press). The PSCD subtype profiles were uniform across sex and race/ethnicity. Adolescents evincing a psychopathic trait propensity profile (elevated on all four PSCD domains) displayed the greatest number of arrests and higher overall externalizing psychopathology, compared to the other three latent classes, as well as higher internalizing psychopathology compared to adolescents with general delinquency. The PSCD provides a sound measure of psychopathic trait propensities in youth and our results offer investigators and clinicians a means for understanding person-centered psychopathic traits versus antisocial profiles among at-risk adolescents. Taken together, the current results may offer a viable approach for examining specific treatment targets based on PSCD subtype profiles.

Psychopathic traits and their association with adjustment problems in girls.

Psychopathic traits, and specifically callous-unemotional (CU) traits, are associated with a variety of adverse outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. The majority of research in this area has focused on men and boys, though there is some evidence that psychopathy is expressed differently in girls and women. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to test if the relationships of callous-unemotional (CU) traits with adjustment differed between girls and boys at risk for antisocial behavior. The sample was composed of children whose biological father had past or current alcohol or drug problems. A total of 234 children (116 boys, 118 girls; ages 10-12) were rated by their parent or guardian on CU traits and overall adjustment. Boys were generally rated higher on measures of CU traits; however, these traits were more prominently related to adjustment problems among girls. These results suggest that expression of psychopathic traits may have more negative effects on adjustment for girls than boys. One possible mechanism by which CU traits could be impacting adjustment in girls is by impairing interpersonal relationships.

Optimal PAI-A Cutoffs to Determine Risk for Non-Suicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) and Suicide-Related Behavior (SRB) among At-Risk Adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines psychopathology and personality correlates of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicide-related behavior (SRB) in an understudied sample of adolescents who have exhibited behaviors (e.g., delinquent acts, premature high school termination) that place them at-risk for poor psychosocial outcomes. METHOD: Participants included a predominantly White male sample of 182 adolescents (Mage = 16.82 years). In addition to information about NSSI and SRB histories, participants self-reported various facets of personality and psychopathology on the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (PAI-A). RESULTS: Logistic regression analyses indicated that the Suicidal Ideation (SUI) scale on the PAI-A was the strongest predictor of both NSSI and SRB history, as it outperformed other relevant PAI-A scales and the Suicide Potential Index (SPI), an aggregate scale that was designed to assess for suicide risk using the PAI for adults. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses were also conducted to determine optimal cutoff scores for significant PAI-A predictors. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from the current study can be used to identify NSSI and SRB risk and target these life-threatening behaviors when working with at-risk adolescents.HighlightsPAI-A SUI outperformed other PAI-A variables in predicting NSSI and SRB risk.PAI SPI did not perform as well in adolescents compared to adult samples.Cutoff scores in the current sample were well below those in the PAI-A manual.

Applying the PAI Treatment Process Index to PAI-As Completed by Adolescents in a Residential Program.

The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) Treatment Process Index (TPI) is a measure of treatment amenability based on an index of factors related to poor treatment outcomes (e.g., hostility, lack of social support, and poor impulse control). In this study, the formula used to calculate the TPI for the adult PAI was applied to PAI-Adolescent (PAI-As) protoocols completed by 372 adolescents (mean age: 16.8 years; 80% male) during a 22-week residential program for at-risk youth. The number of disciplinary infractions received during the program was used as an indicator of the participants' response to the program. Average PAI-A scale scores and TPI scores were higher than those previously reported for community samples, but lower than those found in clinical samples. TPI scores were positively associated with disciplinary infractions, particularly nonaggressive infractions, when controlling for demographic factors and other clinically relevant variables. Results suggest that the the TPI has relevance for adolescents completing the PAI-A.

Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD): Factor structure and psychometric properties in a residential school facility.

The Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder scale (PSCD; Salekin & Hare, 2016) is a new scale for the assessment of psychopathic characteristic domains in children and adolescents. The four domains are Grandiose-manipulative (GM), Callous-unemotional (CU), Daring-impulsive (DI), and Conduct Disorder (CD). We examined the properties of the self-report version of the PSCD in a large sample of adolescents (n = 409; age = 16-19; 80.6% male) in a military-style residential facility. Factor analytic results supported a four-factor model consistent with other PSCD research (e.g., López-Romero et al., 2019; Luo et al., 2021). Structural equation model (SEM) indicated a superordinate PSCD factor accounted for significant variance in self-reported delinquency history. The PSCD had good internal consistency and strong convergent and discriminant validity with measures of externalizing and internalizing disorders. The present study provides encouraging data that the PSCD may provide a sound measure of psychopathic propensities in youth. However, additional data are needed to test the stability of the PSCD. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Test-Retest Reliability of Self-Reported Substance Use and Sexual Risk Behavior Among at-Risk Adolescents.

Adolescents often engage in behaviors such as substance use and risky sexual activity that can lead to negative health and psychological consequences for themselves and others. Accurate measurement of these behaviors in surveys is challenging given that the behaviors are often viewed as undesirable and/or are illegal, so it is important to test the psychometric properties of instruments used to assess adolescent risk behaviors. The current study aimed to assess the test-retest reliability of a widely used measure of youth risk-taking behavior, the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). A sample of 156 at-risk adolescents aged 16-18 years (81% male; 61% White) completed the YRBS retrospectively across intervals ranging from 3 to 12 days during their stay in a residential program at which they were under close supervision and had limited ability to engage in new risk behaviors. Participants were asked to complete the YRBS based on their "typical" (pre-program) behavior at both administrations, which were 10-14 weeks into their stay. The reliability of responses was assessed using kappa and weighted kappa analyses. Findings indicate moderate to substantial reliability for nearly all items, suggesting that at-risk youth reliably reported their engagement in health risk behaviors across multiple administrations and supporting the psychometric strength of the YRBS measure for use with this population.

The association between 2D:4D ratios and sociosexuality: a failure to replicate.

Researchers investigating the role of biological factors in the development and maintenance of interest in uncommitted sexual activity (i.e., sociosexuality) have reported that greater prenatal androgen action in women, as inferred by the ratio of the 2nd to 4th digit, is associated with greater interest in uncommitted sexual relationships, as measured by scores on the Sociosexuality Orientation Inventory (SOI) (Clark, 2004). This evidence suggesting a rather extensive role for prenatal factors in human mating behavior has been cited over 20 times in the literature. However, despite this indication of the impact of the research results on theories of human sex differences, there are no published replications of the original finding. For that reason, the association between 2D:4D ratios and sociosexuality was evaluated in two studies. In the first study, using methodology similar to the original report, no significant association between 2D:4D ratios and SOI scores was found either in women (n = 25) or men (n = 25). Next, to test the possibility that moderating factors, such as menstrual cycle phase and circulating testosterone levels, influence the strength of the association between 2D:4D ratios and sociosexuality, salivary hormone levels and behaviors were measured during the early follicular and mid-luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in women not using hormonal contraceptives (n = 40) and at two time points in women using oral contraceptives (n = 44) and in men (n = 42). Women and men in this study showed the expected sex differences in hormone levels and behavior. However, circulating hormones and 2D:4D ratios were unrelated to measures of sociosexuality obtained at the two test sessions. In sum, these data suggest that factors other than prenatal and circulating hormones explain the sex differences in self-reports of sociosexuality.