Evaluation of the Superiority of Lightweight-Aggregate-Concrete Prestressed Box Girders in Terms of Durability and Prestress Loss.

This case study aimed to compare the differences in the durability and prestress loss between normal-weight-concrete (NC) and lightweight-aggregate-concrete (LWC) prestressed box girders, which were constructed at the same time in the same area, so as to verify the superiority of using synthetic lightweight aggregate (LWA) made from reservoir sediments in prestressed bridges. For the NCs and LWCs used in the prestressed box girders, the basic mechanical properties (compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and elastic modulus) were tested, as well as the durability properties (chloride ion penetration resistance and rapid chloride permeability). Then, through the prestress-monitoring system, the prestress losses of the two groups of prestressed box girders were tracked. The results of the durability test confirmed that LWC can inhibit the penetration of air, water, and chloride ions by strengthening the interfacial transition zone between the aggregate and the cement paste, thereby improving its durability. Moreover, the magnetic-flux prestress loss of the NC prestressed box girder reached 8.1%. In contrast, the magnetic-flux prestress losses on both sides of the LWC prestressed box girder were 4.6% and 4.9%, respectively. This verified that, under the same environmental conditions, the use of LWC produced less of a prestress loss than the use of NC.

The Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Biomineralization Technology in Improving the Strength of Damaged Fiber-Reinforced LWAC.

Concrete cracks and local damage can affect the bond performance between concrete and steel bars, thereby reducing the durability of reinforced concrete structures. Compared with general concrete crack repair methods, biomineralization repair not only has effective bonding capabilities but is also particularly environmentally friendly. Therefore, this study aimed to apply biomineralization technology to repair damaged fiber-reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC). Two groups of LWAC specimens were prepared. The experimental group used lightweight aggregates (LWAs) containing bacterial spores and nutrient sources, while the control group used LWAs without bacterial spores and nutrient sources. These specimens were first subjected to compression tests and pull-out tests, respectively, and thus were damaged. After the damaged specimen healed itself in different ways for 28 days, secondary compression and pull-out tests were conducted. The self-healing method of the control group involved placing the specimens in an incubator. The experimental group was divided into experimental group I and experimental group II according to the self-healing method. The self-healing method of experimental group I was the same as that of the control group. The self-healing method of experimental group II involved soaking the specimen in a mixed solution of urea and calcium acetate for two days, and then taking it out and placing it in an incubator for two days, with a cycle of four days. The test results show that in terms of the relative bond strength ratio, the experimental group II increased by 17.9% compared with the control group. Moreover, the precipitate formed at the cracks in the sample was confirmed to be calcium carbonate with the EDS and XRD analysis results, which improved the compressive strength and bond strength after self-healing. This indicates that the biomineralization self-healing method used in experimental group II is more effective.

Production of Synthetic Lightweight Aggregates from Industrial Sludge.

Industrial sludge continues to increase in quantity with the development of industry. Therefore, how to effectively treat industrial sludge continues to be an environmental focus around the world. Due to the high calorie content of industrial sludge in Taiwan, most of the sludge is incinerated for simplicity and convenience. However, this incineration causes environmental pollution and cannot effectively reuse the industrial sludge. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of lightweight aggregates produced from water treatment sludge (WTS) mixed with industrial sludge. The industrial sludge was obtained from three industrial zones in Taiwan. The lightweight aggregate materials were prepared by mixing WTS with 7.5%, 15.0%, or 22.5% of industrial sludge as a secondary ingredient. The chemical composition analyses revealed that the ternary phase diagrams of the chemical components were within the range recommended by C.M. Moreover, Riley indicated that the ingredients could expand. The sintering experiments were conducted in two stages. Stage I served to determine the optimal sintering temperature, while Stage II produced lightweight aggregates at the optimal sintering temperatures after 5, 10, or 15 min of preheating. The results indicated that an increase in preheating time increased the particle density of the lightweight aggregates but decreased the water absorption ratio, because increasing preheating time causes more gases to escape, resulting in aggregates that could not produce sufficient gas to support expansion during the sintering stage. The sintering results of the lightweight aggregates showed that their particle density was between 0.5 and 1.4 g/cm3, which met the requirements of the specification. Their water absorption rate was below 21%, which was roughly in line with the recommendations of the specification. When the amount of industrial sludge added was less than 22.5%, the lightweight aggregate was sintered successfully, which is suitable for engineering applications. The industrial sludge experienced a loss of between 50% and 70% on ignition, resulting in pores and cracks that were observed on the surfaces of the lightweight aggregate. Based on the energy required to sinter lightweight aggregates, a greater loss on ignition indicates the conversion of more materials into heat energy. Therefore, the use of industrial sludge in lightweight aggregates not only provides ways to reuse industrial sewage waste but also reduces the consumption requirements for sintering lightweight aggregates, thereby achieving energy-saving and carbon-reduction goals.

The Corrosion Resistance of Reinforced Lightweight Aggregate Concrete in Strong Brine Environments.

Taiwan has used technology in reservoir sediments and industrial waste to produce high-performance lightweight aggregate (LWA). LWA can be used to manufacture lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) with structural strength ratings. At present, Taiwan's offshore wind turbines are gradually developing and are moving from coastal areas to deep-sea areas. With this in mind, this study aimed to investigate the feasibility of applying LWAC with synthetic LWA from reservoir sediments to floating offshore wind turbine foundations. LWAC and normal-weight concretes (NWC) of different strengths were prepared, and their fresh, hardened, and durability properties were tested. In addition, reinforced concrete and steel sheets were immersed in a tank of high salinity seawater to examine their resistance to seawater-accelerated corrosion. The test results showed that the total passing charge of the two groups of concrete within six hours was less than 1000 coulombs. Both groups of concrete were classified as having "Very Low" chloride permeability. The average corrosion potential of most reinforced concrete specimens was found to be greater than -200 mV, which means that the corrosion probability of the steel bars was less than 10%. Furthermore, the use of coatings for seawater corrosion protection on steel sheets was not found to be as effective as reinforced concrete. This shows that the use of LWAC with synthetic LWA from reservoir sediments for the floating foundations of offshore wind turbines is feasible and has design flexibility.

Application of Biomineralization Technology to Self-Healing of Fiber-Reinforced Lightweight Concrete after Exposure to High Temperatures.

In the field of civil engineering, concrete self-healing technology plays an important role. Concrete self-healing should be able to effectively heal cracks, not only improving the internal structure, but also improving the mechanical properties and durability of the concrete structure. The biomineralization-repair method is characterized by its potential for long-lasting, rapid, and active crack repair potential. Biomineralization repair has an effective bond ability, is compatible with concrete components, and is also environmentally friendly. This study used biomineralization to explore the self-healing of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete after its exposure to high temperatures. Concrete specimens of a control group (using lightweight aggregate without bacterial spores and a nutrient source) and an experimental group (using lightweight aggregate containing bacterial spores and a nutrient source) were prepared. The repair effect of the microbial self-healing concrete after the exposure to high temperature was observed by a crack-width gauge, field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). According to the EDS and XRD analyses, the precipitate formed at the crack was calcium carbonate. After 28 days of self-healing, the water absorption rate of the experimental group was lower than that of the control group. This is because the specimens of the penetration test were taken from the middle of the concrete cylinder after high temperature, and their bacterial survival rate was higher, which made the mineralization more significant. However, the mechanical test results of the control and experimental groups after the self-healing in the water were not substantially different, which indicated that the bacterial mineralization in the experimental group was slow in the absence of an adequate source of nutrients.

Low-temperature synthesis of rose-like ZnO nanostructures using surfactin and their photocatalytic activity.

Rose-like ZnO nanostructures were synthesized by the precipitation method using a biosurfactant (surfactin) as a templating-agent stabilizer. The concentration of surfactin in the precursor solution significantly influenced the thickness and density of the petals in the rose-like structures, and all samples were of a wurtzite phase. The thickness of the petal was found to decrease with increasing surfactin concentration. The average thickness of the petals was found to be between 10 and 13 nm. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue using rose-like ZnO nanostuctures was investigated, and the morphology, density and thickness of the ZnO petals were found to influence the photodegradation activity. The samples with loosely-spread petals, or plate-like ZnO structures, brought about the strongest photodegradation in comparison with the dense rose-like structures. The greater activity of the loose-petal structures was correlated with their higher absorption in the UV region in comparison with the other samples. The ZnO samples prepared using low surfactin concentrations had higher rate constant values, i.e., 9.1 x 10(-3) min(-1), which revealed that the photodegradation of methylene blue under UV irradiation progressed by a pseudo first-order kinetic reaction.

Flexural Behavior of Ultra-High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Beams after Exposure to High Temperatures.

Due to the dense structure of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), it is prone to explosive spalling at high temperatures. In this paper, flexural testing of UHPC and high-strength concrete (HSC) beams was carried out at room temperature and after being subjected to different levels of thermal exposure (300-500 °C). The cross-section of the beam specimen was 150 (width) × 200 (depth) mm, and its length was 1500 mm. The flexural and shear design of the beam specimens were carried out in accordance with the ACI 318M-14 code. All of the beams were singly reinforced with two #4 rebars (minimum reinforcement ratio) as a longitudinal tensile reinforcement at the bottom of the specimen and at an effective depth of 165 mm. The flexural load was applied using the three-point load method. The results show that, at room temperature and after being subjected to different thermal exposures, compared with the HSC specimens, the stiffness of the UHPC specimens in the post-cracking stage was relatively larger and the deflection under a given load was smaller. Moreover, whether at room temperature or after exposure to different thermal exposures, the ductility of the UHPC specimens was better than that of the HSC specimens.

Mechanical Properties of Ultra-High Performance Concrete before and after Exposure to High Temperatures.

Compared with ordinary concrete, ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) has excellent toughness and better impact resistance. Under high temperatures, the microstructure and mechanical properties of UHPC may seriously deteriorate. As such, we first explored the properties of UHPC with a designed 28-day compressive strength of 120 MPa or higher in the fresh mix phase, and measured its hardened mechanical properties at seven days. The test variables included: the type of cementing material and the mixing ratio (silica ash, ultra-fine silicon powder), the type of fiber (steel fiber, polypropylene fiber), and the fiber content (volume percentage). In addition to the UHPC of the experimental group, pure concrete was used as the control group in the experiment; no fiber or supplementary cementitious materials (silica ash, ultra-fine silicon powder) were added to enable comparison and discussion and analysis. Then, the UHPC-1 specimens of the experimental group were selected for further compressive, flexural, and splitting strength tests and SEM observations after exposure to different target temperatures in an electric furnace. The test results show that at room temperature, the 56-day compressive strength of the UHPC-1 mix was 155.8 MPa, which is higher than the >150 MPa general compressive strength requirement for ultra-high-performance concrete. The residual compressive strength, flexural strength, and splitting strength of the UHPC-1 specimen after exposure to 300, 400, and 500 °C did not decrease significantly, and even increased due to the drying effect of heating. However, when the temperature was 600 °C, spalling occurred, so the residual mechanical strength rapidly declined. SEM observations confirmed that polypropylene fibers melted at high temperatures, thereby forming other channels that helped to reduce the internal vapor pressure of the UHPC and maintain a certain residual strength.

Efficient option of industrial wastewater resources in cement mortar application with river-sand by microbial induced calcium carbonate precipitation.

The industrial wastewater disposal has been growing attention for environmental protection and resource substitution, current decades. Similarly, the durability enhancement of concrete has increased attention by microbial induced CaCO3 precipitation (MICP) process (biocalcification). However, ecofriendly utilization of industrial wastewater in concrete formation is unstudied so far. The present study was carried out to evaluate the effect of industrial wastewater on the formation of cement mortar, compressive strength and water absorption. The biocement mortar strength (y) increased (y = 0.5295×2 + 1.6019×+251.05; R2 = 0.9825) with increasing percentage of organic wastewater (x) (BM0 - BM100) by MICP, where highest strength (280.75 kgf/cm2) was observed on BM100 (100% wastewater), compared to control (252.05 kgf/cm2). The water absorption (y) of biocement mortar decreases (y = -0.0251×2-0.103× + 15.965; R2 = 0.9594) with increment of wastewater (x) (%) (BM0 - BM100), where a minimum-water-absorption (14.42%) observed on BM100, compared to control (15.89%). SEM micrograph and XRD shows the formation of most-distinctive CaCO3 crystallization (aragonite/calcite) (acicular, brick shape, massive and stacked structure) inside biocement mortar (BM100), which fills the pores within cement mortar to form a denser structure, by microbial organic wastewater. Thus, present findings implied a cost-effective of MICP technology to improve the concrete properties along with the mitigation of industrial wastewater pollution, which goes some way towards solving the problem of industrial wastewater pollution.

Self-Healing Concrete by Biological Substrate.

At present, the commonly used repair materials for concrete cracks mainly include epoxy systems and acrylic resins, which are all environmentally unfriendly materials, and the difference in drying shrinkage and thermal expansion often causes delamination or cracking between the original concrete matrix and the repair material. This study aimed to explore the feasibility of using microbial techniques to repair concrete cracks. The bacteria used were environmentally friendly Bacillus pasteurii. In particular, the use of lightweight aggregates as bacterial carriers in concrete can increase the chance of bacterial survival. Once the external environment meets the growth conditions of the bacteria, the vitality of the strain can be restored. Such a system can greatly improve the feasibility and success rate of bacterial mineralization in concrete. The test project included the microscopic testing of concrete crack repair, mainly to understand the crack repair effect of lightweight aggregate concrete with implanted bacterial strains, and an XRD test to confirm that the repair material was produced by the bacteria. The results show that the implanted bacterial strains can undergo Microbiologically Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP) and can effectively fill the cracks caused by external concrete forces by calcium carbonate deposition. According to the results on the crack profile and crack thickness, the calcium carbonate precipitate produced by the action of Bacillus pasteurii is formed by the interface between the aggregate and the cement paste, and it spreads over the entire fracture surface and then accumulates to a certain thickness to form a crack repairing effect. The analysis results of the XRD test also clearly confirm that the white crystal formed in the concrete crack is calcium carbonate. From the above test results, it is indeed feasible to use Bacillus pasteurii in the self-healing of concrete cracks.

Application of the Taguchi Method for Optimizing the Process Parameters of Producing Lightweight Aggregates by Incorporating Tile Grinding Sludge with Reservoir Sediments.

This study aimed to apply the Taguchi optimization technique to determine the process conditions for producing synthetic lightweight aggregate (LWA) by incorporating tile grinding sludge powder with reservoir sediments. An orthogonal array L16(45) was adopted, which consisted of five controllable four-level factors (i.e., sludge content, preheat temperature, preheat time, sintering temperature, and sintering time). Moreover, the analysis of variance method was used to explore the effects of the experimental factors on the particle density, water absorption, bloating ratio, and loss on ignition of the produced LWA. Overall, the produced aggregates had particle densities ranging from 0.43 to 2.1 g/cm³ and water absorption ranging from 0.6% to 13.4%. These values are comparable to the requirements for ordinary and high-performance LWAs. The results indicated that it is considerably feasible to produce high-performance LWA by incorporating tile grinding sludge with reservoir sediments.

Paper Sludge Reuse in Lightweight Aggregates Manufacturing.

The lightweight aggregates used by the civil engineering market are sintered at a high temperature, about 1200 °C. In times of high energy prices and regulation of carbon dioxide emissions, lightweight aggregate products of the high-temperature process in sales marketing are not readily accepted. This study developed a sintered-type paper sludge lightweight aggregate. In order to reduce energy consumption, substitution of some reservoir sediment clay in paper sludge substitutes is to be expected. The study used two types of paper sludge (green clay paper sludge and paper pulp sludge). The sintering temperature was reduced effectively as the green clay paper sludge was substituted for some of the reservoir sediment clay, and the optimum substitute ranges of green clay paper sludge were 10%-50%. The optimum substitute ranges of the paper pulp sludge were 10%-40%. Test results show that the properties of aggregates have a particle density of 0.66-1.69 g/cm³, a water absorption of 5%-30%, and a loss on ignition of 10%-43%. The loss on ignition of aggregate became greater with the increase in paper sludge content. This means that the calorific value provided by the paper sludge will increase as paper sludge content increases. Paper sludge can therefore be considered a good material to provide heat energy for sintering lightweight aggregate.