Glutamatergic Neurons Differentiated from Embryonic Stem Cells: An Investigation of Differentiation and Associated Diseases.

Neurons that have been derived from various types of stem cells have recently undergone significant study due to their potential for use in various aspects of biomedicine. In particular, glutamatergic neurons differentiated from embryonic stem cells (ESCs) potentially have many applications in both basic research and regenerative medicine. This review summarized the literatures published thus far and focused on two areas related to these applications. Firstly, these neurons can be used to investigate neuronal signal transduction during differentiation and this means that the genes/proteins/markers involved in this process can be identified. In this way, the dynamic spatial and temporal changes associated with neuronal morphology can be investigated relatively easily. Such an in vitro system can also be used to study how neurons during neurogenesis integrate into normal tissue. At the same time, the integration, regulation and functions of extracellular matrix secretion, various molecular interactions, various ion channels, the neuronal microenvironment, etc., can be easily traced. Secondly, the disease-related aspects of ESC-derived glutamatergic neurons can also be studied and then applied therapeutically. In the future, greater efforts are needed to explore how ESC-differentiated glutamatergic neurons can be used as a neuronal model for the study of Alzheimer's disease (AD) mechanistically, to identify possible therapeutic strategies for treating AD, including tissue replacement, and to screen for drugs that can be used to treat AD patients. With all of the modern technology that is available, translational medicine should begin to benefit patients soon.

Development of a Graphene Oxide-Incorporated Polydimethylsiloxane Membrane with Hexagonal Micropillars.

Several efforts have been made on the development of bioscaffolds including the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) elastomer for supporting cell growth into stable sheets. However, PDMS has several disadvantages, such as intrinsic surface hydrophobicity and mechanical strength. Herein, we generated a novel PDMS-based biomimetic membrane by sequential modifications of the PMDS elastomer with graphene oxide (GO) and addition of a hexagonal micropillar structure at the bottom of the biomembrane. GO was initially homogenously mixed with pure PDMS and then was further coated onto the upper surface of the resultant PDMS. The elastic modulus and hydrophilicity were significantly improved by such modifications. In addition, the development of hexagonal micropillars with smaller diameters largely improved the ion permeability and increased the motion resistance. We further cultured retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells on the surface of this modified PDMS biomembrane and assayed its biocompatibility. Remarkably, the GO incorporation and coating exhibited beneficial effect on the cell growth and the new formation of tight junctions in RPE cells. Taken together, this GO-modified PDMS scaffold with polyhexagonal micropillars may be utilized as an ideal cell sheet and adaptor for cell cultivation and can be used in vivo for the transplantation of cells such as RPE cells.

Discovering the Deregulated Molecular Functions Involved in Malignant Transformation of Endometriosis to Endometriosis-Associated Ovarian Carcinoma Using a Data-Driven, Function-Based Analysis.

The clinical characteristics of clear cell carcinoma (CCC) and endometrioid carcinoma EC) are concomitant with endometriosis (ES), which leads to the postulation of malignant transformation of ES to endometriosis-associated ovarian carcinoma (EAOC). Different deregulated functional areas were proposed accounting for the pathogenesis of EAOC transformation, and there is still a lack of a data-driven analysis with the accumulated experimental data in publicly-available databases to incorporate the deregulated functions involved in the malignant transformation of EOAC. We used the microarray gene expression datasets of ES, CCC and EC downloaded from the National Center for Biotechnology Information Gene Expression Omnibus (NCBI GEO) database. Then, we investigated the pathogenesis of EAOC by a data-driven, function-based analytic model with the quantified molecular functions defined by 1454 Gene Ontology (GO) term gene sets. This model converts the gene expression profiles to the functionome consisting of 1454 quantified GO functions, and then, the key functions involving the malignant transformation of EOAC can be extracted by a series of filters. Our results demonstrate that the deregulated oxidoreductase activity, metabolism, hormone activity, inflammatory response, innate immune response and cell-cell signaling play the key roles in the malignant transformation of EAOC. These results provide the evidence supporting the specific molecular pathways involved in the malignant transformation of EAOC.

Elongation of Axon Extension for Human iPSC-Derived Retinal Ganglion Cells by a Nano-Imprinted Scaffold.

Optic neuropathies, such as glaucoma and Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) lead to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss and therefore motivate the application of transplantation technique into disease therapy. However, it is a challenge to direct the transplanted optic nerve axons to the correct location of the retina. The use of appropriate scaffold can promote the proper axon growth. Recently, biocompatible materials have been integrated into the medical field, such as tissue engineering and reconstruction of damaged tissues or organs. We, herein, utilized nano-imprinting to create a scaffold mimicking the in vitro tissue microarchitecture, and guiding the axonal growth and orientation of the RGCs. We observed that the robust, long, and organized axons of human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived RGCs projected axially along the scaffold grooves. The RGCs grown on the scaffold expressed the specific neuronal biomarkers indicating their proper functionality. Thus, based on our in vitro culture system, this device can be useful for the neurophysiological analysis and transplantation for ophthalmic neuropathy treatment.

Gene Set-Based Integrative Analysis Revealing Two Distinct Functional Regulation Patterns in Four Common Subtypes of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer.

Clear cell (CCC), endometrioid (EC), mucinous (MC) and high-grade serous carcinoma (SC) are the four most common subtypes of epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC). The widely accepted dualistic model of ovarian carcinogenesis divided EOCs into type I and II categories based on the molecular features. However, this hypothesis has not been experimentally demonstrated. We carried out a gene set-based analysis by integrating the microarray gene expression profiles downloaded from the publicly available databases. These quantified biological functions of EOCs were defined by 1454 Gene Ontology (GO) term and 674 Reactome pathway gene sets. The pathogenesis of the four EOC subtypes was investigated by hierarchical clustering and exploratory factor analysis. The patterns of functional regulation among the four subtypes containing 1316 cases could be accurately classified by machine learning. The results revealed that the ERBB and PI3K-related pathways played important roles in the carcinogenesis of CCC, EC and MC; while deregulation of cell cycle was more predominant in SC. The study revealed that two different functional regulation patterns exist among the four EOC subtypes, which were compatible with the type I and II classifications proposed by the dualistic model of ovarian carcinogenesis.

Paeonol Derivative, 6'-Methyl Paeonol, Attenuates Aß-Induced Pathophysiology in Cortical Neurons and in an Alzheimer's Disease Mice Model.

Herbs themselves and various herbal medicines are great resources for discovering therapeutic drugs for various diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), one of the common neurodegenerative diseases. Utilizing mouse primary cortical neurons and DiBAC4(3), a voltage-sensitive indicator, we have set up a drug screening system and identified an herbal extraction compound, paeonol, obtained from Paeonia lactiflora; this compound is able to ameliorate the abnormal depolarization induced by Aß42 oligomers. Our aim was to further find effective paeonol derivatives since paeonol has been previously studied. 6'-Methyl paeonol, one of the six paeonol derivatives surveyed, is able to inhibit the abnormal depolarization induced by Aß oligomers. Furthermore, 6'-methyl paeonol is able to alleviate the NMDA- and AMPA-induced depolarization. When a molecular mechanism was investigated, 6'-methyl paeonol was found to reverse the Aß-induced increase in ERK phosphorylation. At the animal level, mice injected with 6'-methyl paeonol showed little change in their basic physical parameters compared to the control mice. 6'-Methyl paeonol was able to ameliorate the impairment of memory and learning behavior in J20 mice, an AD mouse model, as measured by the Morris water maze. Thus, paeonol derivatives could provide a structural foundation for developing and designing an effective compound with promising clinical benefits.

Optimal concentrations of N-decanoyl-N-methylglucamine and sodium dodecyl sulfate allow the extraction and analysis of membrane proteins.

We studied the extraction and analysis of integral membrane proteins possessing hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains and found that a nonionic detergent called MEGA-10, used in lysis buffers, had a superior extraction effect compared to most conventional detergents. A sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) concentration of >0.4% (w/v) in the sample buffer was crucial for those proteins to be clearly analyzed by electrophoresis and Western blotting. Furthermore, MEGA-10 had the tendency to maximally extract proteins around its critical micelle concentration (CMC) of 0.24% (w/v). These solutions can greatly assist functional investigations of membrane proteins in the proteomics era.

An approach for differentiating uniform glutamatergic neurons from mouse embryonic stem cells.

Much effort is being marshaled to generate uniform neuronal populations from embryonic stem (ES) cells, but a completely reliable method has yet to be developed. Here we modified and established a method that brings us closer to this goal. By examining many parameters, we found that the optimal timing of applying a freshly made trypsin/EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) solution to dissociate embryoid bodies determines the success of the outcome. Analyses demonstrated that with this approach, more than 87% of cells differentiated into glutamatergic neurons. Hence, these uniform neurons that were differentiated from ES cells provide an ideal cellular model for many aspects of research.

Expression profiling of cell-intrinsic regulators in the process of differentiation of human iPSCs into retinal lineages.

BACKGROUND: Differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) into retinal lineages offers great potential for medical application. Therefore, it is of crucial importance to know the key intrinsic regulators of differentiation and the specific biomarker signatures of cell lineages. METHODS: In this study, we used microarrays to analyze transcriptomes of terminally differentiated retinal ganglion cell (RGC) and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) lineages, as well as intermediate retinal progenitor cells of optic vesicles (OVs) derived from hiPSCs. In our analysis, we specifically focused on the classes of transcripts that encode intrinsic regulators of gene expression: the transcription factors (TFs) and epigenetic chromatin state regulators. We applied two criteria for the selection of potentially important regulators and markers: firstly, the magnitude of fold-change of upregulation; secondly, the contrasted pattern of differential expression between OV, RGC and RPE lineages. RESULTS: We found that among the most highly overexpressed TF-encoding genes in the OV/RGC lineage were three members of the Collier/Olfactory-1/Early B-cell family: EBF1, EBF2 and EBF3. Knockdown of EBF1 led to significant impairment of differentiation of hiPSCs into RGCs. EBF1 was shown to act upstream of ISL1 and BRN3A, the well-characterized regulators of RGC lineage specification. TF-encoding genes DLX1, DLX2 and INSM1 were the most highly overexpressed genes in the OVs, indicating their important role in the early stages of retinal differentiation. Along with MITF, the two paralogs, BHLHE41 and BHLHE40, were the most robust TF markers of RPE cells. The markedly contrasted expression of ACTL6B, encoding the component of chromatin remodeling complex SWI/SNF, discriminated hiPSC-derived OV/RGC and RPE lineages. CONCLUSIONS: We identified novel, potentially important intrinsic regulators of RGC and RPE cell lineage specification in the process of differentiation from hiPSCs. We demonstrated the crucial role played by EBF1 in differentiation of RGCs. We identified intrinsic regulator biomarker signatures of these two retinal cell types that can be applied with high confidence to confirm the cell lineage identities.

Promoting Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-driven Biomineralization and Periodontal Regeneration in Rats with Maxillary-Molar Defects using Injectable BMP-6 Hydrogel.

Periodontal disease may cause considerable destruction of alveolar bone, periodontal ligaments (PDLs) and cementum and even lead to progressive oral dysfunction. Periodontal tissue regeneration is the ultimate goal of periodontal disease treatment to reconstruct both structures and functions. However, the regenerative efficiency is low, possibly due to the lack of a proper periodontal microenvironment. In this study, we applied an injectable and thermosensitive chitosan/gelatin/glycerol phosphate hydrogel to provide a 3D environment for transplanted stem cells and to enhance stem cell delivery and engraftment. The iPSCs-BMP-6-hydrogel complex promoted osteogenesis and the differentiation of new connective tissue and PDL formation. In animal models of maxillary-molar defects, the iPSCs-BMP-6-hydrogel-treated group showed significant mineralization with increased bone volume, trabecular number and trabecular thickness. Synergistic effects of iPSCs and BMP-6 increased both bone and cementum formation. IPSCs-BMP-6-hydrogel-treated animals showed new bone synthesis (increased ALP- and TRAP-positive cells), new PDL regeneration (shown through Masson's trichrome staining and a qualification assay), and reduced levels of inflammatory cytokines. These findings suggest that hydrogel-encapsulated iPSCs combined with BMP-6 provide a new strategy to enhance periodontal regeneration. This combination not only promoted stem cell-derived graft engraftment but also minimized the progress of inflammation, which resulted in highly possible periodontal regeneration.

Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells from a patient with Best Dystrophy carrying 11q12.3 (BEST1 (VMD2)) mutation.

Best disease (BD), also termed Best vitelliform macular dystrophy (BVMD), is a juvenile-onset form of macular degeneration and central visual loss. In this report, we generated an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) line, TVGH-iPSC-012-04, from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of a female patient with BD by using the Sendai virus delivery system. The resulting iPSCs retained the disease-causing DNA mutation, expressed pluripotent markers and could differentiate into three germ layers. We believe that BD patient-specific iPSCs provide a powerful in vitro model for evaluating the pathological phenotypes of the disease.

Association of mSin1 with mTORC2 Ras and Akt reveals a crucial domain on mSin1 involved in Akt phosphorylation.

mSin1 is a unique component within the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex 2 (mTORC2), which is responsible for cellular morphology and glucose metabolism. The association between mSin1 and other mTORC2 components, as well as their functions, has been explored previously; nevertheless, the mapping of the various binding domains of the components is lacking. Based on an evolutionary analysis of the gene, we constructed various fragments and truncated-forms of mSin1. We characterized the individual binding sites of mSin1 with its various partners, including mTOR, Rictor, Ras, and Akt. mTOR and Rictor bind to the amino acid (aa) 100-240 region of mSin1, which is different to the Ras binding site, the aa 260-460 region. A reciprocal examination found that mSin1 associated with the aa 2148-2300 region of mTOR, which is within the kinase domain, and with the carboxyl terminus of Rictor. Interestingly, Akt was found to associate with mSin1 in a region that slightly overlapped with the mTOR/Rictor complex binding site, namely aa 220-260. When only the Akt binding site was deleted from mSin1, phosphorylation of Akt S473 was greatly reduced. Furthermore, the association between Akt and mTOR can be regulated by serum, insulin and LY294002, but not by rapamycin or MAPK kinase inhibitors. Taken together, mSin1 would seem to act as a hub that allows mTORC2 to phosphorylate Akt S473. Our findings should facilitate future proteomic and crystallographic studies, help the development of dominant inhibitors and promote the identification of new drug targets.

Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein M associates with mTORC2 and regulates muscle differentiation.

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) plays a range of crucial roles in cell survival, growth, proliferation, metabolism, and morphology. However, mTOR forms two distinct complexes, mTOR complex 1 and mTOR complex 2 (mTORC1 and mTORC2), via association with a series of different components; this allows the complexes to execute their wide range of functions. This study explores further the composition of the mTORC2 complex. Utilizing Rictor knock-out cells, immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry, a novel Rictor associated protein, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein M (hnRNP M), was identified. The association between hnRNP M and Rictor was verified using recombinant and endogenous protein and the binding site was found to be within aa 1~532 of hnRNP M. The presence of hnRNP M significantly affects phosphorylation of SGK1 S422, but not of Akt S473, PKCα S657 and PKCζ T560. Furthermore, hnRNP M also plays a critical role in muscle differentiation because knock-down of either hnRNP M or Rictor in C2C12 myoblasts reduced differentiation. This decrease is able to be rescued by overexpression SGK S422D in hnRNP M knockdown C2C12 myoblasts. Taken together, we have identified a novel Rictor/mTOR binding molecule, hnRNP M, that allows mTORC2 signaling to phosphorylate SGK1 thus regulating muscle differentiation.

Inhibition of Src and forkhead box O1 signaling by induced pluripotent stem-cell therapy attenuates hyperoxia-augmented ventilator-induced diaphragm dysfunction.

Mechanical ventilation (MV) with hyperoxia is required for providing life support to patients with acute lung injury (ALI). However, MV may cause diaphragm weakness through muscle injury and atrophy, an effect termed ventilator-induced diaphragm dysfunction (VIDD). Src protein tyrosine kinase and class O of forkhead box 1 (FoxO1) mediate acute inflammatory responses and muscle protein degradation induced by oxidative stress. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have been reported to improve hyperoxia-augmented ALI; however, the mechanisms regulating the interactions among VIDD, hyperoxia, and iPSCs are unclear. In this study, we hypothesized that iPSC therapy can ameliorate hyperoxia-augmented VIDD by suppressing the Src-FoxO1 pathway. Male C57BL/6 mice, either wild-type or Src-deficient, aged between 6 and 8 weeks were exposed to MV (6 or 10 mL/kg) with or without hyperoxia for 2-8 h after the administration of 5 × 10(7) cells/kg Oct4/Sox2/Parp1 mouse iPSCs or iPSC-derived conditioned medium (iPSC-CM). Nonventilated mice were used as controls. MV during hyperoxia aggravated VIDD, as demonstrated by the increases in Src activation, FoxO1 dephosphorylation, malondialdehyde, caspase-3, atrogin-1 and muscle ring finger-1 production, microtubule-associated protein light chain 3-II, disorganized myofibrils, disrupted mitochondria, autophagy, and myonuclear apoptosis; however, MV with hyperoxia reduced mitochondrial cytochrome C, diaphragm muscle fiber size, and contractility (P < 0.05). Hyperoxia-exacerbated VIDD was attenuated in Src-deficient mice and by iPSCs and iPSC-CM (P < 0.05). Our data indicate that iPSC therapy attenuates MV-induced diaphragmatic injury that occurs during hyperoxia-augmented VIDD by inhibiting the Src-FoxO1 signaling pathway.

Laminin modification subretinal bio-scaffold remodels retinal pigment epithelium-driven microenvironment in vitro and in vivo.

Advanced age-related macular degeneration (AMD) may lead to geographic atrophy or fibrovascular scar at macular, dysfunctional retinal microenvironment, and cause profound visual loss. Recent clinical trials have implied the potential application of pluripotent cell-differentiated retinal pigment epithelial cells (dRPEs) and membranous scaffolds implantation in repairing the degenerated retina in AMD. However, the efficacy of implanted membrane in immobilization and supporting the viability and functions of dRPEs, as well as maintaining the retinal microenvironment is still unclear. Herein we generated a biomimetic scaffold mimicking subretinal Bruch's basement from plasma modified polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) sheet with laminin coating (PDMS-PmL), and investigated its potential functions to provide a subretinal environment for dRPE-monolayer grown on it. Firstly, compared to non-modified PDMS, PDMS-PmL enhanced the attachment, proliferation, polarization, and maturation of dRPEs. Second, PDMS-PmL increased the polarized tight junction, PEDF secretion, melanosome pigment deposit, and phagocytotic-ability of dRPEs. Third, PDMS-PmL was able to carry a dRPEs/photoreceptor-precursors multilayer retina tissue. Finally, the in vivo subretinal implantation of PDMS-PmL in porcine eyes showed well-biocompatibility up to 2-year follow-up. Notably, multifocal ERGs at 2-year follow-up revealed well preservation of macular function in PDMS-PmL, but not PDMS, transplanted porcine eyes. Trophic PEDF secretion of macular retina in PDMS-PmL group was also maintained to preserve retinal microenvironment in PDMS-PmL eyes at 2 year. Taken together, these data indicated that PDMS-PmL is able to sustain the physiological morphology and functions of polarized RPE monolayer, suggesting its potential of rescuing macular degeneration in vivo.

Neural differentiation from embryonic stem cells in vitro: An overview of the signaling pathways.

Neurons derived from embryonic stem cells (ESCs) have gained great merit in both basic research and regenerative medicine. Here we review and summarize the signaling pathways that have been reported to be involved in the neuronal differentiation of ESCs, particularly those associated with in vitro differentiation. The inducers and pathways explored include retinoic acid, Wnt/ß-catenin, transforming growth factor/bone morphogenetic protein, Notch, fibroblast growth factor, cytokine, Hedgehog, c-Jun N-terminal kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase and others. Some other miscellaneous molecular factors that have been reported in the literature are also summarized and discussed. These include calcium, calcium receptor, calcineurin, estrogen receptor, Hox protein, ceramide, glycosaminioglycan, ginsenoside Rg1, opioids, two pore channel 2, nitric oxide, chemically defined medium, cell-cell interactions, and physical stimuli. The interaction or crosstalk between these signaling pathways and factors will be explored. Elucidating these signals in detail should make a significant contribution to future progress in stem cell biology and allow, for example, better comparisons to be made between differentiation in vivo and in vitro. Of equal importance, a comprehensive understanding of the pathways that are involved in the development of neurons from ESCs in vitro will also accelerate their application as part of translational medicine.

Dysregulation of Mitochondrial Functions and Osteogenic Differentiation in Cisd2-Deficient Murine Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells.

Wolfram syndrome 2 (WFS2) is a premature aging syndrome caused by an irreversible mitochondria-mediated disorder. Cisd2, which regulates mitochondrial electron transport, has been recently identified as the causative gene of WFS2. The mouse Cisd2 knockout (KO) (Cisd2(-/-)) recapitulates most of the clinical manifestations of WFS2, including growth retardation, osteopenia, and lordokyphosis. However, the precise mechanisms underlying osteopenia in WFS2 and Cisd2 KO mice remain unknown. In this study, we collected embryonic fibroblasts from Cisd2-deficient embryos and reprogrammed them into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) via retroviral transduction with Oct4/Sox2/Klf4/c-Myc. Cisd2-deficient mouse iPSCs (miPSCs) exhibited structural abnormalities in their mitochondria and an impaired proliferative capability. The global gene expression profiles of Cisd2(+/+), Cisd2(+/-), and Cisd2(-/-) miPSCs revealed that Cisd2 functions as a regulator of both mitochondrial electron transport and Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, which is critical for cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. Notably, Cisd2(-/-) miPSCs exhibited impaired Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, with the downregulation of downstream genes, such as Tcf1, Fosl1, and Jun and the osteogenic regulator Runx2. Several differentiation markers for tridermal lineages were globally impaired in Cisd2(-/-) miPSCs. Alizarin red S staining and flow cytometry analysis further revealed that Cisd2(-/-) miPSCs failed to undergo osteogenic differentiation. Taken together, our results, as determined using an miPSC-based platform, have demonstrated that Cisd2 regulates mitochondrial function, proliferation, intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis, and Wnt pathway signaling. Cisd2 deficiency impairs the activation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling and thereby contributes to the pathogeneses of osteopenia and lordokyphosis in WFS2 patients.

Ceramide inhibits insulin-stimulated Akt phosphorylation through activation of Rheb/mTORC1/S6K signaling in skeletal muscle.

Ceramide is a negative regulator of insulin activity. At the molecular level, it causes a decrease in insulin-stimulated Akt Ser473 phosphorylation in C2C12 myotubes. Interestingly, we found that the phosphorylation of S6K at Thr389 was increased under the same conditions. Utilizing both rapamycin to inhibit mTORC1 activity and shRNA to knock down Rheb, we demonstrated that the decrease in Akt Ser473 phosphorylation stimulated by insulin after C2-ceramide incubation can be prevented. The mechanism by which C2-ceramide impairs signaling would seem to involve a negative feedback of activated S6K via phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 at Ser636/639, since S6K inhibitor can block this phenomenon. Finally, rapamycin treatment was found not to affect C2-ceramide-induced PKCζ activation, suggesting that the pathway revealed in this study is parallel to the one involving PKCζ activation. We proposed a novel pathway/mechanism involving Rheb/mTORC1/S6K signaling to explain how C2-ceramide impairs insulin signaling via Akt phosphorylation. The existence of multiple pathways involved in insulin signaling impairment by C2-ceramide treatment implies that different strategies might be needed to ameliorate insulin resistance caused by C2-ceramide.

Differentiation of glutamatergic neurons from mouse embryonic stem cells requires raptor S6K signaling.

Although the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) functions as an important signaling complex in many cellular processes, the role of mTORC1 in neurons derived from embryonic stem cells (ESCs) has been less explored. Here, using a modified protocol to differentiate mouse ESCs (mESCs) into almost uniform glutamatergic neurons, we explored the importance of raptor/mTORC1 in the differentiation of mESCs. Raptor gene-trap mESCs, and raptor-knockdown mESCs formed smaller-sized embryonic bodies than the wild type and failed to undergo neuronal differentiation. Treatment with 1µM rapamycin starting at the point when neuronal precursors began to differentiate from mESCs caused the gradual loss of neurites, shrinkage of soma, and a decreased ratio of neurite length to cell number over 48 to 72h of treatment. This change was accompanied by activation of caspase-3 and S6 kinase (S6K), but not 4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1). Knockdown of raptor during neuronal differentiation from mESCs also resulted in gradual loss of neurites and shrinkage of cell bodies. Loss of neurite density resulting from rapamycin treatment could be reversed by overexpression of S6K T389E. Taken together, these data demonstrate that raptor/mTORC1/S6K plays a critical role in the differentiation and survival of neurons derived from mESCs.