RESUMO
To further our understanding of the genetic etiology of autism, we generated and analyzed genome sequence data from 516 idiopathic autism families (2,064 individuals). This resource includes >59 million single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) and 9,212 private copy number variants (CNVs), of which 133,992 and 88 are de novo mutations (DNMs), respectively. We estimate a mutation rate of â¼1.5 × 10-8 SNVs per site per generation with a significantly higher mutation rate in repetitive DNA. Comparing probands and unaffected siblings, we observe several DNM trends. Probands carry more gene-disruptive CNVs and SNVs, resulting in severe missense mutations and mapping to predicted fetal brain promoters and embryonic stem cell enhancers. These differences become more pronounced for autism genes (p = 1.8 × 10-3, OR = 2.2). Patients are more likely to carry multiple coding and noncoding DNMs in different genes, which are enriched for expression in striatal neurons (p = 3 × 10-3), suggesting a path forward for genetically characterizing more complex cases of autism.
Assuntos
Transtorno Autístico/genética , Variações do Número de Cópias de DNA , Polimorfismo de Nucleotídeo Único , Animais , Análise Mutacional de DNA , Feminino , Estudo de Associação Genômica Ampla , Humanos , Mutação INDEL , Masculino , CamundongosRESUMO
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous disease in which efforts to define subtypes behaviorally have met with limited success. Hypothesizing that genetically based subtype identification may prove more productive, we resequenced the ASD-associated gene CHD8 in 3,730 children with developmental delay or ASD. We identified a total of 15 independent mutations; no truncating events were identified in 8,792 controls, including 2,289 unaffected siblings. In addition to a high likelihood of an ASD diagnosis among patients bearing CHD8 mutations, characteristics enriched in this group included macrocephaly, distinct faces, and gastrointestinal complaints. chd8 disruption in zebrafish recapitulates features of the human phenotype, including increased head size as a result of expansion of the forebrain/midbrain and impairment of gastrointestinal motility due to a reduction in postmitotic enteric neurons. Our findings indicate that CHD8 disruptions define a distinct ASD subtype and reveal unexpected comorbidities between brain development and enteric innervation.
Assuntos
Transtornos Globais do Desenvolvimento Infantil/genética , Transtornos Globais do Desenvolvimento Infantil/fisiopatologia , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Fatores de Transcrição/genética , Adolescente , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Animais , Encéfalo/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Encéfalo/patologia , Criança , Transtornos Globais do Desenvolvimento Infantil/classificação , Transtornos Globais do Desenvolvimento Infantil/patologia , Pré-Escolar , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Feminino , Trato Gastrointestinal/inervação , Trato Gastrointestinal/fisiopatologia , Humanos , Macaca mulatta , Masculino , Megalencefalia/patologia , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Mutação , Alinhamento de Sequência , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismo , Peixe-Zebra , Proteínas de Peixe-Zebra/genética , Proteínas de Peixe-Zebra/metabolismoRESUMO
PURPOSE: Genetic variants at the low end of the penetrance spectrum have historically been challenging to interpret because their high population frequencies exceed the disease prevalence of the associated condition, leading to a lack of clear segregation between the variant and disease. There is currently substantial variation in the classification of these variants, and no formal classification framework has been widely adopted. The Clinical Genome Resource Low Penetrance/Risk Allele Working Group was formed to address these challenges and promote harmonization within the clinical community. METHODS: The work presented here is the product of internal and community Likert-scaled surveys in combination with expert consensus within the Working Group. RESULTS: We formally recognize risk alleles and low-penetrance variants as distinct variant classes from those causing highly penetrant disease that require special considerations regarding their clinical classification and reporting. First, we provide a preferred terminology for these variants. Second, we focus on risk alleles and detail considerations for reviewing relevant studies and present a framework for the classification these variants. Finally, we discuss considerations for clinical reporting of risk alleles. CONCLUSION: These recommendations support harmonized interpretation, classification, and reporting of variants at the low end of the penetrance spectrum.
Assuntos
Variação Genética , Humanos , Alelos , Variação Genética/genética , Penetrância , Frequência do GeneRESUMO
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders with an estimated heritability of >60%. Family-based genetic studies of ASD have generally focused on multiple small kindreds, searching for de novo variants of major effect. We hypothesized that molecular genetic analysis of large multiplex families would enable the identification of variants of milder effects. We studied a large multigenerational family of European ancestry with multiple family members affected with ASD or the broader autism phenotype (BAP). We identified a rare heterozygous variant in the gene encoding 1,4-É-glucan branching enzyme 1 (GBE1) that was present in seven of seven individuals with ASD, nine of ten individuals with the BAP, and none of four tested unaffected individuals. We genotyped a community-acquired cohort of 389 individuals with ASD and identified three additional probands. Cascade analysis demonstrated that the variant was present in 11 of 13 individuals with familial ASD/BAP and neither of the two tested unaffected individuals in these three families, also of European ancestry. The variant was not enriched in the combined UK10K ASD cohorts of European ancestry but heterozygous GBE1 deletion was overrepresented in large ASD cohorts, collectively suggesting an association between GBE1 and ASD.
Assuntos
Enzima Ramificadora de 1,4-alfa-Glucana , Transtorno do Espectro Autista , Sistema da Enzima Desramificadora do Glicogênio , Enzima Ramificadora de 1,4-alfa-Glucana/genética , Transtorno do Espectro Autista/genética , Exoma , Predisposição Genética para Doença , Glucanos , Sistema da Enzima Desramificadora do Glicogênio/genética , HumanosRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Hirschsprung's disease, or congenital aganglionosis, is a developmental disorder of the enteric nervous system and is the most common cause of intestinal obstruction in neonates and infants. The disease has more than 80% heritability, including significant associations with rare and common sequence variants in genes related to the enteric nervous system, as well as with monogenic and chromosomal syndromes. METHODS: We genotyped and exome-sequenced samples from 190 patients with Hirschsprung's disease to quantify the genetic burden in patients with this condition. DNA sequence variants, large copy-number variants, and karyotype variants in probands were considered to be pathogenic when they were significantly associated with Hirschsprung's disease or another neurodevelopmental disorder. Novel genes were confirmed by functional studies in the mouse and human embryonic gut and in zebrafish embryos. RESULTS: The presence of five or more variants in four noncoding elements defined a widespread risk of Hirschsprung's disease (48.4% of patients and 17.1% of controls; odds ratio, 4.54; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.19 to 6.46). Rare coding variants in 24 genes that play roles in enteric neural-crest cell fate, 7 of which were novel, were also common (34.7% of patients and 5.0% of controls) and conferred a much greater risk than noncoding variants (odds ratio, 10.02; 95% CI, 6.45 to 15.58). Large copy-number variants, which were present in fewer patients (11.4%, as compared with 0.2% of controls), conferred the highest risk (odds ratio, 63.07; 95% CI, 36.75 to 108.25). At least one identifiable genetic risk factor was found in 72.1% of the patients, and at least 48.4% of patients had a structural or regulatory deficiency in the gene encoding receptor tyrosine kinase (RET). For individual patients, the estimated risk of Hirschsprung's disease ranged from 5.33 cases per 100,000 live births (approximately 1 per 18,800) to 8.38 per 1000 live births (approximately 1 per 120). CONCLUSIONS: Among the patients in our study, Hirschsprung's disease arose from common noncoding variants, rare coding variants, and copy-number variants affecting genes involved in enteric neural-crest cell fate that exacerbate the widespread genetic susceptibility associated with RET. For individual patients, the genotype-specific odds ratios varied by a factor of approximately 67, which provides a basis for risk stratification and genetic counseling. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health.).
Assuntos
Variação Genética , Genótipo , Doença de Hirschsprung/genética , Exoma , Feminino , Predisposição Genética para Doença , Humanos , Masculino , Mutação , Razão de Chances , Penetrância , Análise de Sequência de DNA , Sequenciamento do ExomaRESUMO
Human chromosome 15q25 is involved in several disease-associated structural rearrangements, including microdeletions and chromosomal markers with inverted duplications. Using comparative fluorescence in situ hybridization, strand-sequencing, single-molecule, real-time sequencing and Bionano optical mapping analyses, we investigated the organization of the 15q25 region in human and nonhuman primates. We found that two independent inversions occurred in this region after the fission event that gave rise to phylogenetic chromosomes XIV and XV in humans and great apes. One of these inversions is still polymorphic in the human population today and may confer differential susceptibility to 15q25 microdeletions and inverted duplications. The inversion breakpoints map within segmental duplications containing core duplicons of the GOLGA gene family and correspond to the site of an ancestral centromere, which became inactivated about 25 million years ago. The inactivation of this centromere likely released segmental duplications from recombination repression typical of centromeric regions. We hypothesize that this increased the frequency of ectopic recombination creating a hotspot of hominid inversions where dispersed GOLGA core elements now predispose this region to recurrent genomic rearrangements associated with disease.
Assuntos
Inversão Cromossômica , Cromossomos Humanos Par 15/genética , Duplicações Segmentares Genômicas , Animais , Autoantígenos/genética , Instabilidade Cromossômica , Evolução Molecular , Dosagem de Genes , Rearranjo Gênico , Variação Genética , Proteínas da Matriz do Complexo de Golgi/genética , Hominidae/genética , Humanos , Família Multigênica , Filogenia , Primatas/genética , Recombinação Genética , Especificidade da EspécieRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: Congenital clubfoot is a common birth defect that affects at least 0.1% of all births. Nearly 25% cases are familial and the remaining are sporadic in inheritance. Copy number variants (CNVs) involving transcriptional regulators of limb development, including PITX1 and TBX4, have previously been shown to cause familial clubfoot, but much of the heritability remains unexplained. METHODS: Exome sequence data from 816 unrelated clubfoot cases and 2645 in-house controls were analysed using coverage data to identify rare CNVs. The precise size and location of duplications were then determined using high-density Affymetrix Cytoscan chromosomal microarray (CMA). Segregation in families and de novo status were determined using qantitative PCR. RESULTS: Chromosome Xp22.33 duplications involving SHOX were identified in 1.1% of cases (9/816) compared with 0.07% of in-house controls (2/2645) (p=7.98×10-5, OR=14.57) and 0.27% (38/13592) of Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities/the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2 controls (p=0.001, OR=3.97). CMA validation confirmed an overlapping 180.28 kb duplicated region that included SHOX exons as well as downstream non-coding regions. In four of six sporadic cases where DNA was available for unaffected parents, the duplication was de novo. The probability of four de novo mutations in SHOX by chance in a cohort of 450 sporadic clubfoot cases is 5.4×10-10. CONCLUSIONS: Microduplications of the pseudoautosomal chromosome Xp22.33 region (PAR1) containing SHOX and downstream enhancer elements occur in ~1% of patients with clubfoot. SHOX and regulatory regions have previously been implicated in skeletal dysplasia as well as idiopathic short stature, but have not yet been reported in clubfoot. SHOX duplications likely contribute to clubfoot pathogenesis by altering early limb development.
Assuntos
Pé Torto Equinovaro/genética , Predisposição Genética para Doença , Fatores de Transcrição Box Pareados/genética , Proteína de Homoeobox de Baixa Estatura/genética , Proteínas com Domínio T/genética , Adolescente , Criança , Pré-Escolar , Duplicação Cromossômica/genética , Pé Torto Equinovaro/patologia , Variações do Número de Cópias de DNA/genética , Duplicação Gênica/genética , Humanos , Lactente , Análise em Microsséries , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Linhagem , Regiões Pseudoautossômicas/genética , Sequenciamento do ExomaRESUMO
Recurrent deletions and duplications at chromosomal region 16p11.2 are a major genetic contributor to autism but also associate with a wider range of pediatric diagnoses, including intellectual disability, coordination disorder, and language disorder. In order to investigate the potential genetic basis for phenotype variability, we assessed the parent of origin of the 16p11.2 copy-number variant (CNV) and the presence of additional CNVs in 126 families for which detailed phenotype data were available. Among de novo cases, we found a strong maternal bias for the origin of deletions (59/66, 89.4% of cases, p = 2.38 × 10(-11)), the strongest such effect so far observed for a CNV associated with a microdeletion syndrome. In contrast to de novo events, we observed no transmission bias for inherited 16p11.2 CNVs, consistent with a female meiotic hotspot of unequal crossover driving this maternal bias. We analyzed this 16p11.2 CNV cohort for the presence of secondary CNVs and found a significant maternal transmission bias for secondary deletions (32 maternal versus 14 paternal, p = 1.14 × 10(-2)). Of the secondary deletions that disrupted a gene, 82% were either maternally inherited or de novo (p = 4.3 × 10(-3)). Nine probands carry secondary CNVs that disrupt genes associated with autism and/or intellectual disability risk variants. Our findings demonstrate a strong bias toward maternal origin of 16p11.2 de novo deletions as well as a maternal transmission bias for secondary deletions that contribute to the clinical outcome on a background sensitized by the 16p11.2 CNV.
Assuntos
Transtorno Autístico/genética , Cromossomos Humanos Par 16 , Impressão Genômica , Estudos de Coortes , Troca Genética , Variações do Número de Cópias de DNA , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Polimorfismo de Nucleotídeo Único , Recombinação GenéticaRESUMO
Intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are genetically heterogeneous, and a significant number of genes have been associated with both conditions. A few mutations in POGZ have been reported in recent exome studies; however, these studies do not provide detailed clinical information. We collected the clinical and molecular data of 25 individuals with disruptive mutations in POGZ by diagnostic whole-exome, whole-genome, or targeted sequencing of 5,223 individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders (ID primarily) or by targeted resequencing of this locus in 12,041 individuals with ASD and/or ID. The rarity of disruptive mutations among unaffected individuals (2/49,401) highlights the significance (p = 4.19 × 10(-13); odds ratio = 35.8) and penetrance (65.9%) of this genetic subtype with respect to ASD and ID. By studying the entire cohort, we defined common phenotypic features of POGZ individuals, including variable levels of developmental delay (DD) and more severe speech and language delay in comparison to the severity of motor delay and coordination issues. We also identified significant associations with vision problems, microcephaly, hyperactivity, a tendency to obesity, and feeding difficulties. Some features might be explained by the high expression of POGZ, particularly in the cerebellum and pituitary, early in fetal brain development. We conducted parallel studies in Drosophila by inducing conditional knockdown of the POGZ ortholog row, further confirming that dosage of POGZ, specifically in neurons, is essential for normal learning in a habituation paradigm. Combined, the data underscore the pathogenicity of loss-of-function mutations in POGZ and define a POGZ-related phenotype enriched in specific features.
Assuntos
Transtorno do Espectro Autista/genética , Deficiência Intelectual/genética , Transposases/genética , Adolescente , Adulto , Animais , Transtorno do Espectro Autista/diagnóstico , Criança , Pré-Escolar , Estudos de Coortes , Regulação para Baixo , Drosophila/genética , Proteínas de Drosophila/genética , Proteínas de Drosophila/metabolismo , Exoma , Feminino , Técnicas de Silenciamento de Genes , Estudo de Associação Genômica Ampla , Humanos , Lactente , Deficiência Intelectual/diagnóstico , Transtornos do Desenvolvimento da Linguagem/diagnóstico , Transtornos do Desenvolvimento da Linguagem/genética , Modelos Lineares , Masculino , Microcefalia/diagnóstico , Microcefalia/genética , Mutação , Fenótipo , Fatores de Transcrição/genética , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismoRESUMO
The underlying genetic etiology of rhabdomyolysis remains elusive in a significant fraction of individuals presenting with recurrent metabolic crises and muscle weakness. Using exome sequencing, we identified bi-allelic mutations in TANGO2 encoding transport and Golgi organization 2 homolog (Drosophila) in 12 subjects with episodic rhabdomyolysis, hypoglycemia, hyperammonemia, and susceptibility to life-threatening cardiac tachyarrhythmias. A recurrent homozygous c.460G>A (p.Gly154Arg) mutation was found in four unrelated individuals of Hispanic/Latino origin, and a homozygous â¼34 kb deletion affecting exons 3-9 was observed in two families of European ancestry. One individual of mixed Hispanic/European descent was found to be compound heterozygous for c.460G>A (p.Gly154Arg) and the deletion of exons 3-9. Additionally, a homozygous exons 4-6 deletion was identified in a consanguineous Middle Eastern Arab family. No homozygotes have been reported for these changes in control databases. Fibroblasts derived from a subject with the recurrent c.460G>A (p.Gly154Arg) mutation showed evidence of increased endoplasmic reticulum stress and a reduction in Golgi volume density in comparison to control. Our results show that the c.460G>A (p.Gly154Arg) mutation and the exons 3-9 heterozygous deletion in TANGO2 are recurrent pathogenic alleles present in the Latino/Hispanic and European populations, respectively, causing considerable morbidity in the homozygotes in these populations.
Assuntos
Arritmias Cardíacas/genética , Debilidade Muscular/genética , Rabdomiólise/genética , Alelos , Árabes/genética , Arritmias Cardíacas/diagnóstico , Sequência de Bases , Criança , Pré-Escolar , Estresse do Retículo Endoplasmático/genética , Exoma , Éxons , Feminino , Deleção de Genes , Complexo de Golgi/genética , Complexo de Golgi/metabolismo , Hispânico ou Latino/genética , Homozigoto , Humanos , Lactente , Masculino , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Debilidade Muscular/diagnóstico , Linhagem , Rabdomiólise/diagnóstico , População Branca/genéticaRESUMO
Recurrent rearrangements of Chromosome 8p23.1 are associated with congenital heart defects and developmental delay. The complexity of this region has led to inconsistencies in the current reference assembly, confounding studies of genetic variation. Using comparative sequence-based approaches, we generated a high-quality 6.3-Mbp alternate reference assembly of an inverted Chromosome 8p23.1 haplotype. Comparison with nonhuman primates reveals a 746-kbp duplicative transposition and two separate inversion events that arose in the last million years of human evolution. The breakpoints associated with these rearrangements map to an ape-specific interchromosomal core duplicon that clusters at sites of evolutionary inversion (P = 7.8 × 10-5). Refinement of microdeletion breakpoints identifies a subgroup of patients that map to the same interchromosomal core involved in the evolutionary formation of the duplication blocks. Our results define a higher-order genomic instability element that has shaped the structure of specific chromosomes during primate evolution contributing to rearrangements associated with inversion and disease.
Assuntos
Evolução Molecular , Predisposição Genética para Doença , Instabilidade Genômica , Duplicações Segmentares Genômicas , Animais , Pontos de Quebra do Cromossomo , Deleção Cromossômica , Cromossomos Humanos Par 8/genética , Humanos , Primatas/genéticaRESUMO
PURPOSE: To maximize the discovery of potentially pathogenic variants to better understand the diagnostic utility of genome sequencing (GS) and to assess how the presence of multiple risk events might affect the phenotypic severity in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). METHODS: GS was applied to 180 simplex and multiplex ASD families (578 individuals, 213 patients) with exome sequencing and array comparative genomic hybridization further applied to a subset for validation and cross-platform comparisons. RESULTS: We found that 40.8% of patients carried variants with evidence of disease risk, including a de novo frameshift variant in NR4A2 and two de novo missense variants in SYNCRIP, while 21.1% carried clinically relevant pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants. Patients with more than one risk variant (9.9%) were more severely affected with respect to cognitive ability compared with patients with a single or no-risk variant. We observed no instance among the 27 multiplex families where a pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant was transmitted to all affected members in the family. CONCLUSION: The study demonstrates the diagnostic utility of GS, especially for multiple risk variants that contribute to the phenotypic severity, shows the genetic heterogeneity in multiplex families, and provides evidence for new genes for follow up.
Assuntos
Transtorno Autístico/genética , Sequenciamento do Exoma , Criança , Hibridização Genômica Comparativa , Variações do Número de Cópias de DNA , Análise Mutacional de DNA , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , FenótipoRESUMO
Adult human brains retain the capacity to undergo tissue reorganization during second-language learning. Brain-imaging studies show a relationship between neuroanatomical properties and learning for adults exposed to a second language. However, the role of genetic factors in this relationship has not been investigated. The goal of the current study was twofold: (i) to characterize the relationship between brain white matter fiber-tract properties and second-language immersion using diffusion tensor imaging, and (ii) to determine whether polymorphisms in the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene affect the relationship. We recruited incoming Chinese students enrolled in the University of Washington and scanned their brains one time. We measured the diffusion properties of the white matter fiber tracts and correlated them with the number of days each student had been in the immersion program at the time of the brain scan. We found that higher numbers of days in the English immersion program correlated with higher fractional anisotropy and lower radial diffusivity in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus. We show that fractional anisotropy declined once the subjects finished the immersion program. The relationship between brain white matter fiber-tract properties and immersion varied in subjects with different COMT genotypes. Subjects with the Methionine (Met)/Valine (Val) and Val/Val genotypes showed higher fractional anisotropy and lower radial diffusivity during immersion, which reversed immediately after immersion ended, whereas those with the Met/Met genotype did not show these relationships. Statistical modeling revealed that subjects' grades in the language immersion program were best predicted by fractional anisotropy and COMT genotype.
Assuntos
Catecol O-Metiltransferase/genética , Idioma , Aprendizagem , Substância Branca/anatomia & histologia , Adolescente , Adulto , Anisotropia , Feminino , Genótipo , Humanos , Imageamento por Ressonância Magnética , Masculino , Substância Branca/diagnóstico por imagem , Adulto JovemRESUMO
Investigations of noninvasive prenatal screening for aneuploidy by analysis of circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) have shown high sensitivity and specificity in both high-risk and low-risk cohorts. However, the overall low incidence of aneuploidy limits the positive predictive value of these tests. Currently, the causes of false positive results are poorly understood. We investigated four pregnancies with discordant prenatal test results and found in two cases that maternal duplications on chromosome 18 were the likely cause of the discordant results. Modeling based on population-level copy-number variation supports the possibility that some false positive results of noninvasive prenatal screening may be attributable to large maternal copy-number variants. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and others.).
Assuntos
Aneuploidia , Transtornos Cromossômicos/diagnóstico , Variações do Número de Cópias de DNA , DNA/sangue , Reações Falso-Positivas , Diagnóstico Pré-Natal , Adulto , Cromossomos Humanos Par 13 , Cromossomos Humanos Par 18 , Cromossomos Humanos Par 21 , DNA/análise , Feminino , Humanos , Modelos Estatísticos , GravidezRESUMO
Small insertions and deletions (indels) and large structural variations (SVs) are major contributors to human genetic diversity and disease. However, mutation rates and characteristics of de novo indels and SVs in the general population have remained largely unexplored. We report 332 validated de novo structural changes identified in whole genomes of 250 families, including complex indels, retrotransposon insertions, and interchromosomal events. These data indicate a mutation rate of 2.94 indels (1-20 bp) and 0.16 SVs (>20 bp) per generation. De novo structural changes affect on average 4.1 kbp of genomic sequence and 29 coding bases per generation, which is 91 and 52 times more nucleotides than de novo substitutions, respectively. This contrasts with the equal genomic footprint of inherited SVs and substitutions. An excess of structural changes originated on paternal haplotypes. Additionally, we observed a nonuniform distribution of de novo SVs across offspring. These results reveal the importance of different mutational mechanisms to changes in human genome structure across generations.
Assuntos
Variação Genética , Genoma Humano , Alelos , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Feminino , Genômica , Haplótipos , Humanos , Mutação INDEL , Masculino , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Taxa de Mutação , Polimorfismo de Nucleotídeo Único , Retroelementos/genética , Alinhamento de Sequência , Análise de Sequência de DNARESUMO
It is well established that autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have a strong genetic component; however, for at least 70% of cases, the underlying genetic cause is unknown. Under the hypothesis that de novo mutations underlie a substantial fraction of the risk for developing ASD in families with no previous history of ASD or related phenotypes--so-called sporadic or simplex families--we sequenced all coding regions of the genome (the exome) for parent-child trios exhibiting sporadic ASD, including 189 new trios and 20 that were previously reported. Additionally, we also sequenced the exomes of 50 unaffected siblings corresponding to these new (n = 31) and previously reported trios (n = 19), for a total of 677 individual exomes from 209 families. Here we show that de novo point mutations are overwhelmingly paternal in origin (4:1 bias) and positively correlated with paternal age, consistent with the modest increased risk for children of older fathers to develop ASD. Moreover, 39% (49 of 126) of the most severe or disruptive de novo mutations map to a highly interconnected ß-catenin/chromatin remodelling protein network ranked significantly for autism candidate genes. In proband exomes, recurrent protein-altering mutations were observed in two genes: CHD8 and NTNG1. Mutation screening of six candidate genes in 1,703 ASD probands identified additional de novo, protein-altering mutations in GRIN2B, LAMC3 and SCN1A. Combined with copy number variant (CNV) data, these results indicate extreme locus heterogeneity but also provide a target for future discovery, diagnostics and therapeutics.
Assuntos
Transtorno Autístico/genética , Exoma/genética , Éxons/genética , Mutação Puntual/genética , Mapas de Interação de Proteínas/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Proteínas Ligadas por GPI/genética , Predisposição Genética para Doença/genética , Humanos , Laminina/genética , Canal de Sódio Disparado por Voltagem NAV1.1 , Proteínas do Tecido Nervoso/genética , Netrinas , Pais , Receptores de N-Metil-D-Aspartato/genética , Reprodutibilidade dos Testes , Irmãos , Transdução de Sinais , Canais de Sódio/genética , Processos Estocásticos , Fatores de Transcrição/genética , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/metabolismo , beta Catenina/metabolismoRESUMO
Increased male prevalence has been repeatedly reported in several neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs), leading to the concept of a "female protective model." We investigated the molecular basis of this sex-based difference in liability and demonstrated an excess of deleterious autosomal copy-number variants (CNVs) in females compared to males (odds ratio [OR] = 1.46, p = 8 × 10(-10)) in a cohort of 15,585 probands ascertained for NDs. In an independent autism spectrum disorder (ASD) cohort of 762 families, we found a 3-fold increase in deleterious autosomal CNVs (p = 7 × 10(-4)) and an excess of private deleterious single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) in female compared to male probands (OR = 1.34, p = 0.03). We also showed that the deleteriousness of autosomal SNVs was significantly higher in female probands (p = 0.0006). A similar bias was observed in parents of probands ascertained for NDs. Deleterious CNVs (>400 kb) were maternally inherited more often (up to 64%, p = 10(-15)) than small CNVs < 400 kb (OR = 1.45, p = 0.0003). In the ASD cohort, increased maternal transmission was also observed for deleterious CNVs and SNVs. Although ASD females showed higher mutational burden and lower cognition, the excess mutational burden remained, even after adjustment for those cognitive differences. These results strongly suggest that females have an increased etiological burden unlinked to rare deleterious variants on the X chromosome. Carefully phenotyped and genotyped cohorts will be required for identifying the symptoms, which show gender-specific liability to mutational burden.
Assuntos
Transtornos Globais do Desenvolvimento Infantil/genética , Deficiências do Desenvolvimento/genética , Mutação , Adolescente , Adulto , Idoso , Cromossomos Artificiais Bacterianos , Transtornos Cognitivos/genética , Estudos de Coortes , Variações do Número de Cópias de DNA , Análise Mutacional de DNA , Bases de Dados Genéticas , Feminino , Deleção de Genes , Genótipo , Humanos , Masculino , Cadeias de Markov , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Razão de Chances , Análise de Sequência com Séries de Oligonucleotídeos , Fenótipo , Polimorfismo de Nucleotídeo Único , Fatores Sexuais , Adulto JovemRESUMO
Comparisons of human genomes show that more base pairs are altered as a result of structural variation - including copy number variation - than as a result of point mutations. Here we review advances and challenges in the discovery and genotyping of structural variation. The recent application of massively parallel sequencing methods has complemented microarray-based methods and has led to an exponential increase in the discovery of smaller structural-variation events. Some global discovery biases remain, but the integration of experimental and computational approaches is proving fruitful for accurate characterization of the copy, content and structure of variable regions. We argue that the long-term goal should be routine, cost-effective and high quality de novo assembly of human genomes to comprehensively assess all classes of structural variation.
Assuntos
Variação Genética , Genoma Humano , Genótipo , Análise de Sequência de DNA/métodos , Variações do Número de Cópias de DNA , Sequenciamento de Nucleotídeos em Larga Escala/economia , Sequenciamento de Nucleotídeos em Larga Escala/métodos , Humanos , Análise de Sequência com Séries de Oligonucleotídeos/economia , Análise de Sequência com Séries de Oligonucleotídeos/métodos , Polimorfismo de Nucleotídeo Único , Análise de Sequência de DNA/economiaRESUMO
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has high heritability; however, studies of common variation account for <5% of ADHD variance. Using data from affected participants without a family history of ADHD, we sought to identify de novo variants that could account for sporadic ADHD. Considering a total of 128 families, two analyses were conducted in parallel: first, in 11 unaffected parent/affected proband trios (or quads with the addition of an unaffected sibling) we completed exome sequencing. Six de novo missense variants at highly conserved bases were identified and validated from four of the 11 families: the brain-expressed genes TBC1D9, DAGLA, QARS, CSMD2, TRPM2, and WDR83. Separately, in 117 unrelated probands with sporadic ADHD, we sequenced a panel of 26 genes implicated in intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to evaluate whether variation in ASD/ID-associated genes were also present in participants with ADHD. Only one putative deleterious variant (Gln600STOP) in CHD1L was identified; this was found in a single proband. Notably, no other nonsense, splice, frameshift, or highly conserved missense variants in the 26 gene panel were identified and validated. These data suggest that de novo variant analysis in families with independently adjudicated sporadic ADHD diagnosis can identify novel genes implicated in ADHD pathogenesis. Moreover, that only one of the 128 cases (0.8%, 11 exome, and 117 MIP sequenced participants) had putative deleterious variants within our data in 26 genes related to ID and ASD suggests significant independence in the genetic pathogenesis of ADHD as compared to ASD and ID phenotypes. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Assuntos
Transtorno do Deficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade/genética , Transtorno do Espectro Autista/genética , Biomarcadores/análise , Exoma/genética , Sequenciamento de Nucleotídeos em Larga Escala/métodos , Mutação de Sentido Incorreto , Adulto , Transtorno do Deficit de Atenção com Hiperatividade/patologia , Transtorno do Espectro Autista/patologia , Criança , Feminino , Predisposição Genética para Doença , Humanos , Masculino , FenótipoRESUMO
Identifying rare, highly penetrant risk mutations may be an important step in dissecting the molecular etiology of schizophrenia. We conducted a gene-based analysis of large (>100 kb), rare copy-number variants (CNVs) in the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2 (WTCCC2) schizophrenia sample of 1564 cases and 1748 controls all from Ireland, and further extended the analysis to include an additional 5196 UK controls. We found association with duplications at chr20p12.2 (P = 0.007) and evidence of replication in large independent European schizophrenia (P = 0.052) and UK bipolar disorder case-control cohorts (P = 0.047). A combined analysis of Irish/UK subjects including additional psychosis cases (schizophrenia and bipolar disorder) identified 22 carriers in 11 707 cases and 10 carriers in 21 204 controls [meta-analysis Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel P-value = 2 × 10(-4); odds ratio (OR) = 11.3, 95% CI = 3.7, ∞]. Nineteen of the 22 cases and 8 of the 10 controls carried duplications starting at 9.68 Mb with similar breakpoints across samples. By haplotype analysis and sequencing, we identified a tandem ~149 kb duplication overlapping the gene p21 Protein-Activated Kinase 7 (PAK7, also called PAK5) which was in linkage disequilibrium with local haplotypes (P = 2.5 × 10(-21)), indicative of a single ancestral duplication event. We confirmed the breakpoints in 8/8 carriers tested and found co-segregation of the duplication with illness in two additional family members of one of the affected probands. We demonstrate that PAK7 is developmentally co-expressed with another known psychosis risk gene (DISC1) suggesting a potential molecular mechanism involving aberrant synapse development and plasticity.