Tumor-infiltrating DCs suppress nucleic acid-mediated innate immune responses through interactions between the receptor TIM-3 and the alarmin HMGB1.

The mechanisms by which tumor microenvironments modulate nucleic acid-mediated innate immunity remain unknown. Here we identify the receptor TIM-3 as key in circumventing the stimulatory effects of nucleic acids in tumor immunity. Tumor-associated dendritic cells (DCs) in mouse tumors and patients with cancer had high expression of TIM-3. DC-derived TIM-3 suppressed innate immune responses through the recognition of nucleic acids by Toll-like receptors and cytosolic sensors via a galectin-9-independent mechanism. In contrast, TIM-3 interacted with the alarmin HMGB1 to interfere with the recruitment of nucleic acids into DC endosomes and attenuated the therapeutic efficacy of DNA vaccination and chemotherapy by diminishing the immunogenicity of nucleic acids released from dying tumor cells. Our findings define a mechanism whereby tumor microenvironments suppress antitumor immunity mediated by nucleic acids.

Reciprocal SH2-SH3 Domain Contacts between ITK Molecules Limit T Cell Receptor Signaling in Th2-type CD4+ T Cells.

The nonreceptor tyrosine kinase ITK is a key component of the T cell receptor (TCR) signaling pathway and is required for cytokine production by CD4+ T cells that have differentiated into Th2 cells. Structural and biochemical studies suggest that contacts between the SH2 and SH3 domains of ITK mediate intermolecular self-association, forming a structure that restrains ITK activity by interfering with interactions between ITK and other components of the TCR signaling pathway. Wild-type (WT) ITK and a panel of ITK mutants containing amino acid substitutions in the SH2 and SH3 domains were tested for self-association and for binding to the adaptor protein SLP76, a key ligand for the ITK SH2 domain. WT and ITK mutants were also expressed in Itk-deficient CD4+ T cells via retroviral-mediated gene delivery to analyze their ability to support TCR signaling and cytokine production by Th2 cells. Specific amino acid substitutions in the ITK SH2 or SH3 domains impaired self-association, with the greatest effects being seen when both intermolecular SH2-SH3 domain contacts were disrupted. Two of the SH2 domain substitutions tested reduced ITK self-association but had no effect on binding to SLP-76. When their function was analyzed in Th2 cells, ITK proteins with diminished self-association activity supported greater IL-4 production and calcium flux in response to TCR stimulation compared to WT ITK. Our findings indicate that intermolecular contacts between ITK molecules can restrain the amplitude of TCR signaling, suggesting ITK is a limiting factor for responses by CD4+ T cells.

Early B Cell Progenitors Deficient for GON4L Fail To Differentiate Due to a Block in Mitotic Cell Division.

B cell development in Justy mutant mice is blocked due to a precursor mRNA splicing defect that depletes the protein GON4-like (GON4L) in B cell progenitors. Genetic and biochemical studies have suggested that GON4L is a transcriptional regulator that coordinates cell division with differentiation, but its role in B cell development is unknown. To understand the function of GON4L, we characterized B cell differentiation, cell cycle control, and mitotic gene expression in GON4L-deficient B cell progenitors from Justy mice. We found that these cells established key aspects of the transcription factor network that guides B cell development and proliferation and rearranged the IgH gene locus. However, despite intact IL-7 signaling, GON4L-deficient pro-B cell stage precursors failed to undergo a characteristic IL-7-dependent proliferative burst. These cells also failed to upregulate genes required for mitotic division, including those encoding the G1/S cyclin D3 and E2F transcription factors and their targets. Additionally, GON4L-deficient B cell progenitors displayed defects in DNA synthesis and passage through the G1/S transition, contained fragmented DNA, and underwent apoptosis. These phenotypes were not suppressed by transgenic expression of prosurvival factors. However, transgenic expression of cyclin D3 or other regulators of the G1/S transition restored pro-B cell development from Justy progenitor cells, suggesting that GON4L acts at the beginning of the cell cycle. Together, our findings indicate that GON4L is essential for cell cycle progression and division during the early stages of B cell development.

Acute stimulation generates Tim-3-expressing T helper type 1 CD4 T cells that persist in vivo and show enhanced effector function.

T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (Tim-3) is a surface receptor expressed by T helper type 1 (Th1) effector CD4 T cells, which are critical for defence against intracellular pathogens and have been implicated in autoimmune disease. Previous studies showed that Tim-3 expression makes Th1 cells more susceptible to apoptosis and also marks functionally impaired T cells that arise due to chronic stimulation. However, other studies suggested that Tim-3-expressing Th1 cells do not always have these properties. To further define the relationship between Tim-3 and Th1 cell function, we analysed the characteristics of Th1 cells that expressed Tim-3 in response to brief stimulation in vitro or an acute viral infection in vivo. As expected, cultured CD4 T cells began expressing Tim-3 during Th1 differentiation and secondary stimulation generated Tim-3- and Tim-3+ fractions that were separated and further analysed. When injected into naive mice, Tim-3+ cells down-regulated Tim-3 and survived equally well compared with Tim-3- cells. Further, Tim-3- and Tim-3+ Th1 cells had similar functional responses when transferred into naive mice that were subsequently infected with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Cultured Th1 cells that expressed Tim-3 following T-cell receptor stimulation had a greater capacity to express signature Th1 cytokines than their Tim-3- counterparts and showed differential expression of genes that regulate CD4 T-cell function. Consistent with these findings, Tim-3+ Th1 cells generated in response to LCMV infection displayed augmented effector function relative to Tim-3- cells. These results suggest that Tim-3 expression by Th1 cells responding to acute stimulation can mark cells that are functionally competent and have an augmented ability to produce cytokines.

Tim-3 directly enhances CD8 T cell responses to acute Listeria monocytogenes infection.

T cell Ig and mucin domain (Tim) 3 is a surface molecule expressed throughout the immune system that can mediate both stimulatory and inhibitory effects. Previous studies have provided evidence that Tim-3 functions to enforce CD8 T cell exhaustion, a dysfunctional state associated with chronic stimulation. In contrast, the role of Tim-3 in the regulation of CD8 T cell responses to acute and transient stimulation remains undefined. To address this knowledge gap, we examined how Tim-3 affects CD8 T cell responses to acute Listeria monocytogenes infection. Analysis of wild-type (WT) mice infected with L. monocytogenes revealed that Tim-3 was transiently expressed by activated CD8 T cells and was associated primarily with acquisition of an effector phenotype. Comparison of responses to L. monocytogenes by WT and Tim-3 knockout (KO) mice showed that the absence of Tim-3 significantly reduced the magnitudes of both primary and secondary CD8 T cell responses, which correlated with decreased IFN-γ production and degranulation by Tim-3 KO cells stimulated with peptide Ag ex vivo. To address the T cell-intrinsic role of Tim-3, we analyzed responses to L. monocytogenes infection by WT and Tim-3 KO TCR-transgenic CD8 T cells following adoptive transfer into a shared WT host. In this setting, the accumulation of CD8 T cells and the generation of cytokine-producing cells were significantly reduced by the lack of Tim-3, demonstrating that this molecule has a direct effect on CD8 T cell function. Combined, our results suggest that Tim-3 can mediate a stimulatory effect on CD8 T cell responses to an acute infection.

NFIL3/E4BP4 controls type 2 T helper cell cytokine expression.

Type 2 T helper (T(H)2) cells are critical for the development of allergic immune responses; however, the molecular mechanism controlling their effector function is still largely unclear. Here, we report that the transcription factor NFIL3/E4BP4 regulates cytokine production and effector function by T(H)2 cells. NFIL3 is highly expressed in T(H)2 cells but much less in T(H)1 cells. Production of interleukin (IL)-13 and IL-5 is significantly increased in Nfil3(-/-) T(H)2 cells and is decreased by expression of NFIL3 in wild-type T(H)2 cells. NFIL3 directly binds to and negatively regulates the Il13 gene. In contrast, IL-4 production is decreased in Nfil3(-/-) T(H)2 cells. Increased IL-13 and IL-5 together with decreased IL-4 production by antigen-stimulated splenocytes from the immunized Nfil3(-/-) mice was also observed. The ability of NFIL3 to alter T(H)2 cytokine production is a T-cell intrinsic effect. Taken together, these data indicate that NFIL3 is a key regulator of T(H)2 responses.

The Justy mutant mouse strain produces a spontaneous murine model of salivary gland cancer with myoepithelial and basal cell differentiation.

We previously identified a novel mutant mouse strain on the C3HeB/FeJ background named Justy. This strain bears a recessive mutation in the Gon4l gene that greatly reduces expression of the encoded protein, a nuclear factor implicated in transcriptional regulation. Here, we report that Justy mutant mice aged 6 months or older spontaneously developed carcinomas with myoepithelial and basaloid differentiation in salivary glands with an incidence of ∼25%. Tumors developed proximate to submandibular glands and to a lesser extent in the sublingual and parotid glands. Histologically, tumors often had central cavitary lesions filled with necrotic debris that were lined by tumor cells, and had spindle and epithelioid cell differentiation with lesser basaloid to clear cell features. Tumor tissue often had variable evidence of a high mitotic rate, pleomorphism, and invasion into adjacent salivary glands. Neoplastic cells had diffuse immunoreactivity for pancytokeratin (AE1/AE3) and p63. Although CK5/6 immunostaining was seen in the much of the tumor cells, it was often lacking in pleomorphic areas. Tumor cells lacked immunoreactivity for alpha-smooth muscle actin, S100, c-Kit, and glial fibrillary acid protein. In addition, tumors had immunoreactivity for phosphorylated and total epidermal growth factor receptor, suggesting that EGFR signaling may participate in growth regulation of these tumors. These findings indicate that the salivary gland carcinomas occur spontaneously in Justy mice, and that these tumors may offer a valuable model for study of EGFR regulation. In combination, our data suggest that Justy mice warrant further investigation for use as a mouse model for human salivary gland neoplasia.

Tim-1 regulates Th2 responses in an airway hypersensitivity model.

T-cell immunoglobulin mucin-1 (Tim-1) is a transmembrane protein postulated to be a key regulator of Th2-type immune responses. This hypothesis is based in part upon genetic studies associating Tim-1 polymorphisms in mice with a bias toward airway hyperrespon-siveness (AHR) and the development of Th2-type CD4(+) T cells. Tim-1 expressed by Th2 CD4(+) T cells has been proposed to function as a co-stimulatory molecule. Tim-1 is also expressed by B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, but its role in responses by these cell types has not been firmly established. Here, we generated Tim-1-deficient mice to determine the role of Tim-1 in a murine model of allergic airway disease that depends on the development and function of Th2 effector cells and results in the generation of AHR. We found antigen-driven recruitment of inflammatory cells into airways is increased in Tim-1-deficient mice relative to WT mice. In addition, we observed increased antigen-specific cytokine production by splenocytes from antigen-sensitized Tim-1-deficient mice relative to those from controls. These data support the conclusion that Tim-1 functions in pathways that suppress recruitment of inflammatory cells into the airways and the generation or activity of CD4(+) T cells.

The developmental regulator protein Gon4l associates with protein YY1, co-repressor Sin3a, and histone deacetylase 1 and mediates transcriptional repression.

Genetic studies involving zebrafish and mice have demonstrated that the protein Gon4l (Gon4-like) is essential for hematopoiesis. These studies also suggested that Gon4l regulates gene expression during hematopoietic development, yet the biochemical function of Gon4l has not been defined. Here, we describe the identification of factors that interact with Gon4l and may cooperate with this protein to regulate gene expression. As predicted by polypeptide sequence conservation, Gon4l interacted and co-localized with the DNA-binding protein YY1 (Yin Yang 1). Density gradient sedimentation analysis of protein lysates from mouse M12 B cells showed that Gon4l and YY1 co-sediment with the transcriptional co-repressor Sin3a and its functional partner histone deacetylase (HDAC) 1. Consistent with these results, immunoprecipitation studies showed that Gon4l associates with Sin3a, HDAC1, and YY1 as a part of complexes that form in M12 cells. Sequential immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that Gon4l, YY1, Sin3a, and HDAC1 could all associate as components of a single complex and that a conserved domain spanning the central portion of Gon4l was required for formation of this complex. When targeted to DNA, Gon4l repressed the activity of a nearby promoter, which correlated with the ability to interact with Sin3a and HDAC1. Our data suggest that Sin3a, HDAC1, and YY1 are co-factors for Gon4l and that Gon4l may function as a platform for the assembly of complexes that regulate gene expression.

The transcriptional regulator GON4L is required for viability and hematopoiesis in mice.

The Gon4l gene encodes a putative transcriptional regulator implicated in the control of both cell differentiation and proliferation. Previously, we described a mutant mouse strain called Justy in which splicing of pre-mRNA generated from Gon4l is disrupted. This defect severely reduces, but does not abolish, GON4L protein expression and blocks the formation of early B-lineage progenitors, suggesting Gon4l is required for B-cell development in vertebrates. Yet, mutations that disable Gon4l in zebrafish impair several facets of embryogenesis that include the initiation of primitive hematopoiesis, arguing this gene is needed for multiple vertebrate developmental pathways. To better understand the importance of Gon4l in mammals, we created mice carrying an engineered version of Gon4l that can be completely inactivated by Cre-mediated recombination. Breeding mice heterozygous for the inactivated Gon4l allele failed to yield any homozygous-null offspring, indicating Gon4l is an essential gene in mammals. Consistent with this finding, as well previously published results, cell culture studies revealed that loss of Gon4l blocks cell proliferation and compromises viability, suggesting a fundamental role in the control of cell division and survival. Studies using mixed bone marrow chimeras confirmed Gon4l is required for B-cell development but also found it is needed to maintain definitive hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells that are the source of all hematopoietic cell lineages. Our findings reveal Gon4l is an essential gene in mammals that is required to form the entire hematopoietic system.

Cigarette and Cannabis Smoking Effects on GPR15+ Helper T Cell Levels in Peripheral Blood: Relationships with Epigenetic Biomarkers.

Background: Smoking causes widespread epigenetic changes that have been linked with an increased risk of smoking-associated diseases and elevated mortality. Of particular interest are changes in the level of T cells expressing G-protein-coupled receptor 15 (GPR15), a chemokine receptor linked with multiple autoimmune diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis and psoriasis. Accordingly, a better understanding of the mechanisms by which smoking influences variation in the GPR15+ helper T cell subpopulation is of potential interest. Methods: In the current study, we used flow cytometry and digital PCR assays to measure the GPR15+CD3+CD4+ populations in peripheral blood from a cohort of n = 62 primarily African American young adults (aged 27-35 years) with a high rate of tobacco and cannabis use. Results: We demonstrated that self-reported tobacco and cannabis smoking predict GPR15+CD3+CD4+ helper T cell levels using linear regression models. Further, we demonstrated that methylation of two candidate CpGs, cg19859270, located in GPR15, and cg05575921, located in the gene Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Repressor (AHRR), were both significant predictors of GPR15+CD3+CD4+ cell levels, mediating the relationship between smoking habits and increases in GPR15+CD3+CD4+ cells. As hypothesized, the interaction between cg05575921 and cg19859270 was also significant, indicating that low cg05575921 methylation was more strongly predictive of GPR15+CD3+CD4+ cell levels for those who also had lower cg19859270 methylation. Conclusions: Smoking leads changes in two CpGs, cg05575921 and cg19859270, that mediate 38.5% of the relationship between tobacco and cannabis smoking and increased GPR15+ Th levels in this sample. The impact of cg19859270 in amplifying the association between cg05575921 and increased GPR15+ Th levels is of potential theoretical interest given the possibility that it reflects a permissive interaction between different parts of the adaptive immune system.

Tim-3 enhances FcεRI-proximal signaling to modulate mast cell activation.

T cell (or transmembrane) immunoglobulin and mucin domain protein 3 (Tim-3) has attracted significant attention as a novel immune checkpoint receptor (ICR) on chronically stimulated, often dysfunctional, T cells. Antibodies to Tim-3 can enhance antiviral and antitumor immune responses. Tim-3 is also constitutively expressed by mast cells, NK cells and specific subsets of macrophages and dendritic cells. There is ample evidence for a positive role for Tim-3 in these latter cell types, which is at odds with the model of Tim-3 as an inhibitory molecule on T cells. At this point, little is known about the molecular mechanisms by which Tim-3 regulates the function of T cells or other cell types. We have focused on defining the effects of Tim-3 ligation on mast cell activation, as these cells constitutively express Tim-3 and are activated through an ITAM-containing receptor for IgE (FcεRI), using signaling pathways analogous to those in T cells. Using a variety of gain- and loss-of-function approaches, we find that Tim-3 acts at a receptor-proximal point to enhance Lyn kinase-dependent signaling pathways that modulate both immediate-phase degranulation and late-phase cytokine production downstream of FcεRI ligation.

Regulation of T cell responses by the receptor molecule Tim-3.

Tim-3 is a member of the T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain (Tim) family of proteins, which are expressed by several cell types in the immune system, including CD4 and CD8 T cells activated under certain conditions. These molecules are generally thought to act as receptors for multiple ligands and thus to function by engaging intracellular signaling pathways in a ligand-dependent manner. In recent years, the function of the Tim-3 protein has been studied in some detail, particularly with respect to its role in the regulation of CD4 and CD8 T cell responses. Here, we review the structural features of Tim-3, known ligands for this molecule and the links established between Tim-3 and signal transduction pathways. In addition, we review the current literature regarding the role of Tim-3 in the regulation of effector responses by CD4 and CD8 T cells. Overall, findings published thus far strongly support the conclusion that Tim-3 functions to inhibit T cell responses, particularly under conditions involving chronic stimulation. Conversely, some reports have provided evidence that Tim-3 can stimulate T cells under conditions involving acute stimulation, suggesting that the role of Tim-3 may vary depending on context. Further study of Tim-3 is likely to advance our understanding of how CD4 and CD8 T cell responses are regulated and could uncover novel approaches for manipulating T cell function for therapeutic benefit.

Identification of hematopoietic-specific regulatory elements from the CD45 gene and use for lentiviral tracking of transplanted cells.

The development of a hematopoietic reporter is crucial for determining the fate of lineages derived from cell-based therapies. A marking system will enable safer embryonic stem and induced pluripotent stem cell-based derivation of blood lineages and facilitate the development of efficient cellular reprogramming strategies based on direct fibroblast conversion. Here we report that the protein tyrosine phosphatase CD45 is an ideal candidate gene on which to base a hematopoietic reporter. CD45 regulatory elements were discovered by analyzing transcription factor chromatin occupancy (ChIP-seq) and promoter nuclease sensitivity (DNase-seq) to identify minimally sufficient sequences required for expression. After cloning the CD45 regulatory elements into an attenuated lentiviral backbone, we found that two transcriptional initiation regions were essential for high-level expression. Expressing CD45 promoters containing these regions and tethered to green fluorescent protein (GFP) in a primary B-cell differentiation assay and a transplantation model resulted in high levels of GFP in lymphoid, myeloid, and nucleated erythroid cells in mouse and human blood cell lineages. Moreover, GFP levels remained high 5 months after secondary transplantation, indicating persistence of the reporter. No CD45-driven GFP expression is observed after fibroblast or embryonic stem cell transduction. The GFP reporter is seen only after embryonic stem cells differentiate into hematopoietic cell progenitors and lineages, suggesting that this hematopoietic reporter system could be useful in validating potential autologous blood cell therapies.

Sedimentation and immunoprecipitation assays for analyzing complexes that repress transcription.

Co-repressor proteins function as platforms for the assembly of multi-subunit complexes that mediate transcriptional repression. Common components of such complexes are histone deacetylases, which catalyze the removal of acetyl groups from the tails of histones within nucleosomes, resulting in chromatin compaction and gene repression. In addition, co-repressor complexes generally interact with sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins that direct association with regulatory elements in the genome. Thus, identifying proteins that stably associate with co-repressors can provide insights regarding the biochemical function and target gene specificity of these molecules. Here, we describe a density gradient fractionation method for determining whether a co-repressor is incorporated into high-molecular complexes within cells and for identifying potential constituents of these complexes. We also describe a co-immunoprecipitation assay for confirming and further studying interactions between co-repressors and other proteins that may represent functional partners.

Targeting tetramer-forming GABPß isoforms impairs self-renewal of hematopoietic and leukemic stem cells.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and leukemic stem cells (LSCs) are both capable of self-renewal, with HSCs sustaining multiple blood lineage differentiation and LSCs indefinitely propagating leukemia. The GABP complex, consisting of DNA binding GABPα subunit and transactivation GABPß subunit, critically regulates HSC multipotency and self-renewal via controlling an essential gene regulatory module. Two GABPß isoforms, GABPß1L and GABPß2, contribute to assembly of GABPα(2)ß(2) tetramer. We demonstrate that GABPß1L/ß2 deficiency specifically impairs HSC quiescence and survival, with little impact on cell cycle or apoptosis in differentiated blood cells. The HSC-specific effect is mechanistically ascribed to perturbed integrity of the GABP-controlled gene regulatory module in HSCs. Targeting GABPß1L/ß2 also impairs LSC self-renewal in p210(BCR-ABL)-induced chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and exhibits synergistic effects with tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib therapy in inhibiting CML propagation. These findings identify the tetramer-forming GABPß isoforms as specific HSC regulators and potential therapeutic targets in treating LSC-based hematological malignancy.

HOIL-1L interacting protein (HOIP) is essential for CD40 signaling.

CD40 is a cell surface receptor important in the activation of antigen-presenting cells during immune responses. In macrophages and dendritic cells, engagement of CD40 by its ligand CD154 provides signals critical for anti-microbial and T cell-mediated immune responses, respectively. In B cells, CD40 signaling has a major role in regulating cell proliferation, antibody production, and memory B cell development. CD40 engagement results in the formation of a receptor-associated complex that mediates activation of NF-κB, stress-activated protein kinases, and other signaling molecules. However, the mechanisms that link CD40 to these signaling events have been only partially characterized. Known components of the CD40 signaling complex include members of the TNF receptor-associated factor (TRAF) family of proteins. We previously showed that the TRAF family member TRAF2 mediates recruitment of HOIL-1L-interacting protein (HOIP) to the cytoplasmic domain of CD40, suggesting that HOIP has a role in the CD40 signaling pathway. To determine the role of HOIP in CD40 signaling, we used somatic cell gene targeting to generate mouse B cell lines deficient in HOIP. We found that the CD40-induced upregulation of CD80 and activation of germline immunoglobulin epsilon transcription were defective in HOIP-deficient cells. We also found that the CD40-mediated activation of NF-κB and c-Jun kinase was impaired. Recruitment of IκB kinase proteins to the CD40 signaling complex was undetectable in HOIP-deficient cells, potentially explaining the defect in NF-κB activation. Restoration of HOIP expression reversed the defects in cellular activation and signaling. These results reveal HOIP as a key component of the CD40 signaling pathway.

Fyn binds to and phosphorylates T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-1 (Tim-1).

The gene encoding T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-1 (Tim-1) is linked to atopy and asthma susceptibility in mice and humans. Tim-1 is a transmembrane protein expressed on activated lymphocytes and appears to have a role as a co-stimulatory receptor in T cells. The protein has not been shown to have enzymatic activity but contains a site within its cytoplasmic tail predicted to be a target for tyrosine kinases. Here, we show that Tim-1 can associate with the kinase Fyn, a member of the Src family of tyrosine kinases. This association does not require Fyn's kinase activity and is independent of the phosphorylation of a conserved tyrosine present within the cytoplasmic tail of Tim-1. Fyn is necessary for phosphorylation of this tyrosine in Tim-1 and the phosphorylation of Tim-1 varies with the levels of Fyn present in cells. These data suggest a role for Fyn in the signaling downstream of Tim-1.