Widespread infection, diversification and old host associations of Nosema Microsporidia in European freshwater gammarids (Amphipoda).

The microsporidian genus Nosema is primarily known to infect insects of economic importance stimulating high research interest, while other hosts remain understudied. Nosema granulosis is one of the formally described Nosema species infecting amphipod crustaceans, being known to infect only two host species. Our first aim was to characterize Nosema spp. infections in different amphipod species from various European localities using the small subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU) marker. Second, we aimed to assess the phylogenetic diversity, host specificity and to explore the evolutionary history that may explain the diversity of gammarid-infecting Nosema lineages by performing a phylogenetic reconstruction based on RNA polymerase II subunit B1 (RPB1) gene sequences. For the host species Gammarus balcanicus, we also analyzed whether parasites were in excess in females to test for sex ratio distortion in relation with Nosema infection. We identified Nosema spp. in 316 individuals from nine amphipod species being widespread in Europe. The RPB1-based phylogenetic reconstruction using newly reported sequences and available data from other invertebrates identified 39 haplogroups being associated with amphipods. These haplogroups clustered into five clades (A-E) that did not form a single amphipod-infecting monophyletic group. Closely related sister clades C and D correspond to Nosema granulosis. Clades A, B and E might represent unknown Nosema species infecting amphipods. Host specificity seemed to be variable with some clades being restricted to single hosts, and some that could be found in several host species. We show that Nosema parasite richness in gammarid hosts is much higher than expected, illustrating the advantage of the use of RPB1 marker over SSU. Finally, we found no hint of sex ratio distortion in Nosema clade A infecting G. balcanicus. This study shows that Nosema spp. are abundant, widespread and diverse in European gammarids. Thus, Nosema is as diverse in aquatic as in terrestrial hosts.

Heterogeneous distribution of sex ratio distorters in natural populations of the isopod Armadillidium vulgare.

In the isopod Armadillidium vulgare, many females produce progenies with female-biased sex ratios, owing to two feminizing sex ratio distorters (SRD): Wolbachia endosymbionts and the f element. We investigated the distribution and population dynamics of these SRD and mitochondrial DNA variation in 16 populations from Europe and Japan. Confirming and extending results from the 1990s, we found that the SRD are present at variable frequencies in populations and that the f element is overall more frequent than Wolbachia. The two SRD never co-occur at high frequency in any population, suggesting an apparent mutual exclusion. We also detected Wolbachia or the f element in some males, which probably reflects insufficient titer to induce feminization or presence of masculinizing alleles. Our results are consistent with a single integration event of a Wolbachia genome in the A. vulgare genome at the origin of the f element, which contradicts an earlier hypothesis of frequent losses and gains. We identified strong linkage between Wolbachia strains and mitochondrial haplotypes, but no association between the f element and mitochondrial background. Our results open new perspectives on SRD evolutionary dynamics in A. vulgare, the evolution of genetic conflicts and their impact on the variability of sex determination systems.

Investigating Wolbachia symbiont-mediated host protection against a bacterial pathogen using a natural Wolbachia nuclear insert.

Wolbachia bacterial endosymbionts provide protection against pathogens in various arthropod species but the underlying mechanisms remain misunderstood. By using a natural Wolbachia nuclear insert (f-element) in the isopod Armadillidium vulgare, we explored whether Wolbachia presence is mandatory to observe protection in this species or the presence of its genes is sufficient. We assessed survival of closely related females carrying or lacking the f-element (and lacking Wolbachia) challenged with the bacterial pathogen Salmonella enterica. Despite marginal significant effects, the f-element alone did not appear to confer survival benefits to its host, suggesting that Wolbachia presence in cells is crucial for protection.

------Widespread conservation and lineage-specific diversification of genome-wide DNA methylation patterns across arthropods.

Cytosine methylation is an ancient epigenetic modification yet its function and extent within genomes is highly variable across eukaryotes. In mammals, methylation controls transposable elements and regulates the promoters of genes. In insects, DNA methylation is generally restricted to a small subset of transcribed genes, with both intergenic regions and transposable elements (TEs) depleted of methylation. The evolutionary origin and the function of these methylation patterns are poorly understood. Here we characterise the evolution of DNA methylation across the arthropod phylum. While the common ancestor of the arthropods had low levels of TE methylation and did not methylate promoters, both of these functions have evolved independently in centipedes and mealybugs. In contrast, methylation of the exons of a subset of transcribed genes is ancestral and widely conserved across the phylum, but has been lost in specific lineages. A similar set of genes is methylated in all species that retained exon-enriched methylation. We show that these genes have characteristic patterns of expression correlating to broad transcription initiation sites and well-positioned nucleosomes, providing new insights into potential mechanisms driving methylation patterns over hundreds of millions of years.

Monitoring Insect Transposable Elements in Large Double-Stranded DNA Viruses Reveals Host-to-Virus and Virus-to-Virus Transposition.

The mechanisms by which transposable elements (TEs) can be horizontally transferred between animals are unknown, but viruses are possible candidate vectors. Here, we surveyed the presence of host-derived TEs in viral genomes in 35 deep sequencing data sets produced from 11 host-virus systems, encompassing nine arthropod host species (five lepidopterans, two dipterans, and two crustaceans) and six different double-stranded (ds) DNA viruses (four baculoviruses and two iridoviruses). We found evidence of viral-borne TEs in 14 data sets, with frequencies of viral genomes carrying a TE ranging from 0.01% to 26.33% for baculoviruses and from 0.45% to 7.36% for iridoviruses. The analysis of viral populations separated by a single replication cycle revealed that viral-borne TEs originating from an initial host species can be retrieved after viral replication in another host species, sometimes at higher frequencies. Furthermore, we detected a strong increase in the number of integrations in a viral population for a TE absent from the hosts' genomes, indicating that this TE has undergone intense transposition within the viral population. Finally, we provide evidence that many TEs found integrated in viral genomes (15/41) have been horizontally transferred in insects. Altogether, our results indicate that multiple large dsDNA viruses have the capacity to shuttle TEs in insects and they underline the potential of viruses to act as vectors of horizontal transfer of TEs. Furthermore, the finding that TEs can transpose between viral genomes of a viral species sets viruses as possible new niches in which TEs can persist and evolve.

Sex chromosomes control vertical transmission of feminizing Wolbachia symbionts in an isopod.

Microbial endosymbiosis is widespread in animals, with major ecological and evolutionary implications. Successful symbiosis relies on efficient vertical transmission through host generations. However, when symbionts negatively affect host fitness, hosts are expected to evolve suppression of symbiont effects or transmission. Here, we show that sex chromosomes control vertical transmission of feminizing Wolbachia endosymbionts in the isopod Armadillidium nasatum. Theory predicts that the invasion of an XY/XX species by cytoplasmic sex ratio distorters is unlikely because it leads to fixation of the unusual (and often lethal or infertile) YY genotype. We demonstrate that A. nasatum X and Y sex chromosomes are genetically highly similar and that YY individuals are viable and fertile, thereby enabling Wolbachia spread in this XY-XX species. Nevertheless, we show that Wolbachia cannot drive fixation of YY individuals, because infected YY females do not transmit Wolbachia to their offspring, unlike XX and XY females. The genetic basis fits the model of a Y-linked recessive allele (associated with an X-linked dominant allele), in which the homozygous state suppresses Wolbachia transmission. Moreover, production of all-male progenies by infected YY females restores a balanced sex ratio at the host population level. This suggests that blocking of Wolbachia transmission by YY females may have evolved to suppress feminization, thereby offering a whole new perspective on the evolutionary interplay between microbial symbionts and host sex chromosomes.

Transposable Elements and the Evolution of Insects.

Insects are major contributors to our understanding of the interaction between transposable elements (TEs) and their hosts, owing to seminal discoveries, as well as to the growing number of sequenced insect genomes and population genomics and functional studies. Insect TE landscapes are highly variable both within and across insect orders, although phylogenetic relatedness appears to correlate with similarity in insect TE content. This correlation is unlikely to be solely due to inheritance of TEs from shared ancestors and may partly reflect preferential horizontal transfer of TEs between closely related species. The influence of insect traits on TE landscapes, however, remains unclear. Recent findings indicate that, in addition to being involved in insect adaptations and aging, TEs are seemingly at the cornerstone of insect antiviral immunity. Thus, TEs are emerging as essential insect symbionts that may have deleterious or beneficial consequences on their hosts, depending on context.

Evolutionary transition to XY sex chromosomes associated with Y-linked duplication of a male hormone gene in a terrestrial isopod.

Sex chromosomes are highly variable in some taxonomic groups, but the evolutionary mechanisms underlying this diversity are not well understood. In terrestrial isopod crustaceans, evolutionary turnovers in sex chromosomes are frequent, possibly caused by Wolbachia, a vertically-transmitted endosymbiont causing male-to-female sex reversal. Here, we use surgical manipulations and genetic crosses, plus genome sequencing, to examine sex chromosomes in the terrestrial isopod Trachelipus rathkei. Although an earlier cytogenetics study suggested a ZZ/ZW sex chromosome system in this species, we surprisingly find multiple lines of evidence that in our study population, sex is determined by an XX/XY system. Consistent with a recent evolutionary origin for this XX/XY system, the putative male-specific region of the genome is small. The genome shows evidence of Y-linked duplications of the gene encoding the androgenic gland hormone, a major component of male sexual differentiation in isopods. Our analyses also uncover sequences horizontally acquired from past Wolbachia infections, consistent with the hypothesis that Wolbachia may have interfered with the evolution of sex determination in T. rathkei. Overall, these results provide evidence for the co-occurrence of multiple sex chromosome systems within T. rathkei, further highlighting the relevance of terrestrial isopods as models for the study of sex chromosome evolution.

The Genome of Armadillidium vulgare (Crustacea, Isopoda) Provides Insights into Sex Chromosome Evolution in the Context of Cytoplasmic Sex Determination.

The terrestrial isopod Armadillidium vulgare is an original model to study the evolution of sex determination and symbiosis in animals. Its sex can be determined by ZW sex chromosomes, or by feminizing Wolbachia bacterial endosymbionts. Here, we report the sequence and analysis of the ZW female genome of A. vulgare. A distinguishing feature of the 1.72 gigabase assembly is the abundance of repeats (68% of the genome). We show that the Z and W sex chromosomes are essentially undifferentiated at the molecular level and the W-specific region is extremely small (at most several hundreds of kilobases). Our results suggest that recombination suppression has not spread very far from the sex-determining locus, if at all. This is consistent with A. vulgare possessing evolutionarily young sex chromosomes. We characterized multiple Wolbachia nuclear inserts in the A. vulgare genome, none of which is associated with the W-specific region. We also identified several candidate genes that may be involved in the sex determination or sexual differentiation pathways. The A. vulgare genome serves as a resource for studying the biology and evolution of crustaceans, one of the most speciose and emblematic metazoan groups.

Impact of transposable elements on genome size variation between two closely related crustacean species.

Identifying and quantifying genome size variation among species and understanding the underlying causes is a long-standing objective in evolutionary biology. Here, we investigated the basis of genome size variation between two closely related species of terrestrial isopods: Armadillidium vulgare and Armadillidium nasatum. The two species diverged 25 million years ago and the A. vulgare genome is ~500 megabases larger than the A. nasatum genome (1.7 vs. 1.2 gigabases, respectively). Our analyses indicated that genome size difference is essentially attributed to transposable elements (TEs). We found that the deletion rate may be slightly higher in A. nasatum than in A. vulgare, but it is unlikely to explain the observed genome size difference. As the two genomes largely share the same TE families, differential transpositional activity also contributes to the observed variation. Analyses of TE expression suggested that the cumulative expression level of all expressed TEs was higher in A. nasatum than in A. vulgare. Assuming TE expression level is a good proxy for TE transpositional activity, our results suggest that the two species may have recently been experiencing different TE transposition dynamics. Overall, our results illustrate the important impact TEs can have on genome structure and evolution between closely related species.

Analyzing Horizontal Transfer of Transposable Elements on a Large Scale: Challenges and Prospects.

Whoever compares the genomes of distantly related species might find aberrantly high sequence similarity at certain loci. Such anomaly can only be explained by genetic material being transferred through other means than reproduction, that is, a horizontal transfer (HT). Between multicellular organisms, the transferred material will likely turn out to be a transposable element (TE). Because TEs can move between loci and invade chromosomes by replicating themselves, HT of TEs (HTT) profoundly impacts genome evolution. Yet, very few studies have quantified HTT at large taxonomic scales. Indeed, this task currently faces difficulties that range from the variable quality of available genome sequences to limitations of analytical procedures, some of which have been overlooked. Here we review the many challenges that an extensive analysis of HTT must overcome, we expose biases and limits of current methods, suggest solutions or workarounds, and reflect upon approaches that could be developed to better quantify this phenomenon.

Massive horizontal transfer of transposable elements in insects.

Horizontal transfer (HT) of genetic material is central to the architecture and evolution of prokaryote genomes. Within eukaryotes, the majority of HTs reported so far are transfers of transposable elements (TEs). These reports essentially come from studies focusing on specific lineages or types of TEs. Because of the lack of large-scale survey, the amount and impact of HT of TEs (HTT) in eukaryote evolution, as well as the trends and factors shaping these transfers, are poorly known. Here, we report a comprehensive analysis of HTT in 195 insect genomes, representing 123 genera and 13 of the 28 insect orders. We found that these insects were involved in at least 2,248 HTT events that essentially occurred during the last 10 My. We show that DNA transposons transfer horizontally more often than retrotransposons, and unveil phylogenetic relatedness and geographical proximity as major factors facilitating HTT in insects. Even though our study is restricted to a small fraction of insect biodiversity and to a recent evolutionary timeframe, the TEs we found to be horizontally transferred generated up to 24% (2.08% on average) of all nucleotides of insect genomes. Together, our results establish HTT as a major force shaping insect genome evolution.

Continuous Influx of Genetic Material from Host to Virus Populations.

Many genes of large double-stranded DNA viruses have a cellular origin, suggesting that host-to-virus horizontal transfer (HT) of DNA is recurrent. Yet, the frequency of these transfers has never been assessed in viral populations. Here we used ultra-deep DNA sequencing of 21 baculovirus populations extracted from two moth species to show that a large diversity of moth DNA sequences (n = 86) can integrate into viral genomes during the course of a viral infection. The majority of the 86 different moth DNA sequences are transposable elements (TEs, n = 69) belonging to 10 superfamilies of DNA transposons and three superfamilies of retrotransposons. The remaining 17 sequences are moth sequences of unknown nature. In addition to bona fide DNA transposition, we uncover microhomology-mediated recombination as a mechanism explaining integration of moth sequences into viral genomes. Many sequences integrated multiple times at multiple positions along the viral genome. We detected a total of 27,504 insertions of moth sequences in the 21 viral populations and we calculate that on average, 4.8% of viruses harbor at least one moth sequence in these populations. Despite this substantial proportion, no insertion of moth DNA was maintained in any viral population after 10 successive infection cycles. Hence, there is a constant turnover of host DNA inserted into viral genomes each time the virus infects a moth. Finally, we found that at least 21 of the moth TEs integrated into viral genomes underwent repeated horizontal transfers between various insect species, including some lepidopterans susceptible to baculoviruses. Our results identify host DNA influx as a potent source of genetic diversity in viral populations. They also support a role for baculoviruses as vectors of DNA HT between insects, and call for an evaluation of possible gene or TE spread when using viruses as biopesticides or gene delivery vectors.

Birth of a W sex chromosome by horizontal transfer of Wolbachia bacterial symbiont genome.

Sex determination is a fundamental developmental pathway governing male and female differentiation, with profound implications for morphology, reproductive strategies, and behavior. In animals, sex differences between males and females are generally determined by genetic factors carried by sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are remarkably variable in origin and can differ even between closely related species, indicating that transitions occur frequently and independently in different groups of organisms. The evolutionary causes underlying sex chromosome turnover are poorly understood, however. Here we provide evidence indicating that Wolbachia bacterial endosymbionts triggered the evolution of new sex chromosomes in the common pillbug Armadillidium vulgare We identified a 3-Mb insert of a feminizing Wolbachia genome that was recently transferred into the pillbug nuclear genome. The Wolbachia insert shows perfect linkage to the female sex, occurs in a male genetic background (i.e., lacking the ancestral W female sex chromosome), and is hemizygous. Our results support the conclusion that the Wolbachia insert is now acting as a female sex-determining region in pillbugs, and that the chromosome carrying the insert is a new W sex chromosome. Thus, bacteria-to-animal horizontal genome transfer represents a remarkable mechanism underpinning the birth of sex chromosomes. We conclude that sex ratio distorters, such as Wolbachia endosymbionts, can be powerful agents of evolutionary transitions in sex determination systems in animals.

Genomics analysis of Aphanomyces spp. identifies a new class of oomycete effector associated with host adaptation.

BACKGROUND: Oomycetes are a group of filamentous eukaryotic microorganisms that have colonized all terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems, and they include prominent plant pathogens. The Aphanomyces genus is unique in its ability to infect both plant and animal species, and as such exemplifies oomycete versatility in adapting to different hosts and environments. Dissecting the underpinnings of oomycete diversity provides insights into their specificity and pathogenic mechanisms. RESULTS: By carrying out genomic analyses of the plant pathogen A. euteiches and the crustacean pathogen A. astaci, we show that host specialization is correlated with specialized secretomes that are adapted to the deconstruction of the plant cell wall in A. euteiches and protein degradation in A. astaci. The A. euteiches genome is characterized by a large repertoire of small secreted protein (SSP)-encoding genes that are highly induced during plant infection, and are not detected in other oomycetes. Functional analysis revealed an SSP from A. euteiches containing a predicted nuclear-localization signal which shuttles to the plant nucleus and increases plant susceptibility to infection. CONCLUSION: Collectively, our results show that Aphanomyces host adaptation is associated with evolution of specialized secretomes and identify SSPs as a new class of putative oomycete effectors.

Analysis of gene expression from the Wolbachia genome of a filarial nematode supports both metabolic and defensive roles within the symbiosis.

The α-proteobacterium Wolbachia is probably the most prevalent, vertically transmitted symbiont on Earth. In contrast with its wide distribution in arthropods, Wolbachia is restricted to one family of animal-parasitic nematodes, the Onchocercidae. This includes filarial pathogens such as Onchocerca volvulus, the cause of human onchocerciasis, or river blindness. The symbiosis between filariae and Wolbachia is obligate, although the basis of this dependency is not fully understood. Previous studies suggested that Wolbachia may provision metabolites (e.g., haem, riboflavin, and nucleotides) and/or contribute to immune defense. Importantly, Wolbachia is restricted to somatic tissues in adult male worms, whereas females also harbor bacteria in the germline. We sought to characterize the nature of the symbiosis between Wolbachia and O. ochengi, a bovine parasite representing the closest relative of O. volvulus. First, we sequenced the complete genome of Wolbachia strain wOo, which revealed an inability to synthesize riboflavin de novo. Using RNA-seq, we also generated endobacterial transcriptomes from male soma and female germline. In the soma, transcripts for membrane transport and respiration were up-regulated, while the gonad exhibited enrichment for DNA replication and translation. The most abundant Wolbachia proteins, as determined by geLC-MS, included ligands for mammalian Toll-like receptors. Enzymes involved in nucleotide synthesis were dominant among metabolism-related proteins, whereas the haem biosynthetic pathway was poorly represented. We conclude that Wolbachia may have a mitochondrion-like function in the soma, generating ATP for its host. Moreover, the abundance of immunogenic proteins in wOo suggests a role in diverting the immune system toward an ineffective antibacterial response.

The impact of retrotransposons on human genome evolution.

Their ability to move within genomes gives transposable elements an intrinsic propensity to affect genome evolution. Non-long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons--including LINE-1, Alu and SVA elements--have proliferated over the past 80 million years of primate evolution and now account for approximately one-third of the human genome. In this Review, we focus on this major class of elements and discuss the many ways that they affect the human genome: from generating insertion mutations and genomic instability to altering gene expression and contributing to genetic innovation. Increasingly detailed analyses of human and other primate genomes are revealing the scale and complexity of the past and current contributions of non-LTR retrotransposons to genomic change in the human lineage.

The impact of endosymbionts on the evolution of host sex-determination mechanisms.

The past years have revealed that inherited bacterial endosymbionts are important sources of evolutionary novelty for their eukaryotic hosts. In this review we discuss a fundamental biological process of eukaryotes influenced by bacterial endosymbionts: the mechanisms of sex determination. Because they are maternally inherited, several endosymbionts of arthropods, known as reproductive parasites, have developed strategies to convert non-transmitting male hosts into transmitting females through feminization of genetic males and parthenogenesis induction. Recent investigations have also highlighted that endosymbionts can impact upon host sex determination more subtly through genetic conflicts, resulting in selection of host nuclear genes resisting endosymbiont effects. Paradoxically, it is because of their selfish nature that reproductive parasites are such powerful agents of evolutionary change in their host sex-determination mechanisms. They might therefore represent excellent models for studying transitions between sex-determining systems and, more generally, the evolution of sex-determination mechanisms in eukaryotes.

Remarkable abundance and evolution of mobile group II introns in Wolbachia bacterial endosymbionts.

The streamlined genomes of ancient obligate endosymbionts generally lack transposable elements, as a consequence of their intracellular confinement. Yet, the genomes of Wolbachia, one of the most abundant bacterial endosymbionts on Earth, are littered with transposable elements, in particular insertion sequences (ISs). This paradox raises the question of whether or not such a mobile DNA proliferation reflects a special feature of ISs. In this study, we focused on another class of transposable elements, group II introns, and conducted an in-depth analysis of their content and the microevolutionary processes responsible for their dynamics within Wolbachia genomes. We report an exceptionally high intron abundance and striking differences in copy numbers between Wolbachia strains as well as between intron families. Our bioinformatics and experimental results provide strong evidence that intron diversity is mainly caused by recent (and perhaps ongoing) mobility and horizontal transfers. Our data also support several temporally independent intron invasions during Wolbachia evolution. Furthermore, group II intron spread in some Wolbachia strains may be regulated through gene conversion-mediated inactivation of intron copies. Finally, we found introns to be involved in numerous genomic rearrangements. This underscores the high recombinogenic potential of group II introns, contrary to general expectations. Overall, our study represents the first comprehensive analysis of group II intron evolutionary dynamics in obligate intracellular bacteria. Our results show that bacterial endosymbionts with reduced genomes can sustain high loads of mobile group II introns, as hypothesized for the endosymbiont ancestor of mitochondria during early eukaryote evolution.