Circadian distribution of epileptiform discharges in epilepsy: Candidate mechanisms of variability.

Epilepsy is a serious neurological disorder characterised by a tendency to have recurrent, spontaneous, seizures. Classically, seizures are assumed to occur at random. However, recent research has uncovered underlying rhythms both in seizures and in key signatures of epilepsy-so-called interictal epileptiform activity-with timescales that vary from hours and days through to months. Understanding the physiological mechanisms that determine these rhythmic patterns of epileptiform discharges remains an open question. Many people with epilepsy identify precipitants of their seizures, the most common of which include stress, sleep deprivation and fatigue. To quantify the impact of these physiological factors, we analysed 24-hour EEG recordings from a cohort of 107 people with idiopathic generalized epilepsy. We found two subgroups with distinct distributions of epileptiform discharges: one with highest incidence during sleep and the other during day-time. We interrogated these data using a mathematical model that describes the transitions between background and epileptiform activity in large-scale brain networks. This model was extended to include a time-dependent forcing term, where the excitability of nodes within the network could be modulated by other factors. We calibrated this forcing term using independently-collected human cortisol (the primary stress-responsive hormone characterised by circadian and ultradian patterns of secretion) data and sleep-staged EEG from healthy human participants. We found that either the dynamics of cortisol or sleep stage transition, or a combination of both, could explain most of the observed distributions of epileptiform discharges. Our findings provide conceptual evidence for the existence of underlying physiological drivers of rhythms of epileptiform discharges. These findings should motivate future research to explore these mechanisms in carefully designed experiments using animal models or people with epilepsy.

Sleep and seizure risk in epilepsy: bed and wake times are more important than sleep duration.

Sleep duration, sleep deprivation and the sleep-wake cycle are thought to play an important role in the generation of epileptic activity and may also influence seizure risk. Hence, people diagnosed with epilepsy are commonly asked to maintain consistent sleep routines. However, emerging evidence paints a more nuanced picture of the relationship between seizures and sleep, with bidirectional effects between changes in sleep and seizure risk in addition to modulation by sleep stages and transitions between stages. We conducted a longitudinal study investigating sleep parameters and self-reported seizure occurrence in an ambulatory at-home setting using mobile and wearable monitoring. Sixty subjects wore a Fitbit smartwatch for at least 28 days while reporting their seizure activity in a mobile app. Multiple sleep features were investigated, including duration, oversleep and undersleep, and sleep onset and offset times. Sleep features in participants with epilepsy were compared to a large (n = 37 921) representative population of Fitbit users, each with 28 days of data. For participants with at least 10 seizure days (n = 34), sleep features were analysed for significant changes prior to seizure days. A total of 4956 reported seizures (mean = 83, standard deviation = 130) and 30 485 recorded sleep nights (mean = 508, standard deviation = 445) were included in the study. There was a trend for participants with epilepsy to sleep longer than the general population, although this difference was not significant. Just 5 of 34 participants showed a significant difference in sleep duration the night before seizure days compared to seizure-free days. However, 14 of 34 subjects showed significant differences between their sleep onset (bed) and/or offset (wake) times before seizure occurrence. In contrast to previous studies, the current study found undersleeping was associated with a marginal 2% decrease in seizure risk in the following 48 h (P < 0.01). Nocturnal seizures were associated with both significantly longer sleep durations and increased risk of a seizure occurring in the following 48 h. Overall, the presented results demonstrated that day-to-day changes in sleep duration had a minimal effect on reported seizures, while patient-specific changes in bed and wake times were more important for identifying seizure risk the following day. Nocturnal seizures were the only factor that significantly increased the risk of seizures in the following 48 h on a group level. Wearables can be used to identify these sleep-seizure relationships and guide clinical recommendations or improve seizure forecasting algorithms.

User experience of a seizure risk forecasting app: A mixed methods investigation.

OBJECTIVE: Over recent years, there has been a growing interest in exploring the utility of seizure risk forecasting, particularly how it could improve quality of life for people living with epilepsy. This study reports on user experiences and perspectives of a seizure risk forecaster app, as well as the potential impact on mood and adjustment to epilepsy. METHODS: Active app users were asked to complete a survey (baseline and 3-month follow-up) to assess perspectives on the forecast feature as well as mood and adjustment. Post-hoc, nine neutral forecast users (neither agreed nor disagreed it was useful) completed semi-structured interviews, to gain further insight into their perspectives of epilepsy management and seizure forecasting. Non-parametric statistical tests and inductive thematic analyses were used to analyse the quantitative and qualitative data, respectively. RESULTS: Surveys were completed by 111 users. Responders consisted of "app users" (n = 58), and "app and forecast users" (n = 53). Of the "app and forecast users", 40 % believed the forecast was accurate enough to be useful in monitoring for seizure risk, and 60 % adopted it for purposes like scheduling activities and helping mental state. Feeling more in control was the most common response to both high and low risk forecasted states. In-depth interviews revealed five broad themes, of which 'frustrations with lack of direction' (regarding their current epilepsy management approach), 'benefits of increased self-knowledge' and 'current and anticipated usefulness of forecasting' were the most common. SIGNIFICANCE: Preliminary results suggest that seizure risk forecasting can be a useful tool for people with epilepsy to make lifestyle changes, such as scheduling daily events, and experience greater feelings of control. These improvements may be attributed, at least partly, to the improvements in self-knowledge experienced through forecast use.

Brivaracetam effectiveness and tolerability in older and younger adults with epilepsy: EXPERIENCE, a pooled analysis of international data from retrospective studies.

This analysis assessed the effectiveness and tolerability of brivaracetam (BRV) in older (≥65 years of age) and younger (≥16 to <65 years of age) adults with epilepsy. This was a subgroup analysis from EXPERIENCE/EPD332, a pooled analysis of individual patient records from multiple independent, non-interventional studies of patients with epilepsy starting BRV in Australia, Europe, and the United States. Included patients had ≥6 months of follow-up data. Outcomes included responders (≥50 % reduction from baseline in seizure frequency), seizure freedom (no seizures within 3 months before the time point), and continuous seizure freedom (no seizures from baseline) at 12 months; BRV discontinuation during the whole study follow-up; and treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs) at 3, 6, and 12 months. Patients with missing data after BRV discontinuation were deemed non-responders/not seizure-free. Analysis populations included the Full Analysis Set (FAS; patients who received ≥1 BRV dose and had seizure type and age documented at baseline) and the modified FAS (FAS patients who had ≥1 seizure recorded during baseline). The FAS was used for all outcomes except seizure reduction. The FAS included 147 (8.9 %) patients aged ≥65 years and 1497 (91.1 %) aged ≥16 to <65 years. Compared with the younger subgroup, patients aged ≥65 years had a longer median epilepsy duration (33.0 years [n = 144] vs 17.0 years [n = 1460]) and lower median seizure frequency at index (2.0 seizures/28 days [n = 129] vs 4.0 seizures/28 days [n = 1256]), and less commonly had >1 prior antiseizure medication (106/141 [75.2 %] vs 1265/1479 [85.5 %]). At 12 months, a numerically higher percentage of patients aged ≥65 years versus the younger subgroup achieved ≥50 % seizure reduction (46.5 % [n = 71] vs 36.0 % [n = 751]), seizure freedom (26.0 % [n = 100] vs 13.9 % [n = 1011]), and continuous seizure freedom (22.0 % [n = 100] vs 10.7 % [n = 1011]). During the whole study follow-up, 43/147 (29.3 %) patients aged ≥65 years and 508/1492 (34.0 %) aged ≥16 to <65 years discontinued BRV. The incidence of TEAEs since the prior visit was similar in both subgroups at 3 months (≥65 years vs ≥16 to <65 years: 38/138 [27.5 %] vs 356/1404 [25.4 %]), 6 months (19/119 [16.0 %] vs 176/1257 [14.0 %]), and 12 months (8/104 [7.7 %] vs 107/1128 [9.5 %]). This real-world analysis suggests BRV was effective in patients aged ≥65 years and ≥16 to <65 years, with numerically higher effectiveness in the older subgroup. BRV was well tolerated in both subgroups.

Influence of comorbidity on mortality in patients with epilepsy and psychogenic nonepileptic seizures.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to determine the contribution of comorbidities to excess psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES) mortality. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted of tertiary epilepsy outpatients from St. Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Australia with an 8:1 comparison cohort, matched by age, sex, and socioeconomic status (SES) to national administrative databases between 2007 and 2017. Privacy-preserving data linkage was undertaken with the national prescription, National Death Index, and National Coronial Information System. Forty-five comorbid disease classes were derived by applying the Australian validated RxRisk-V to all dispensed prescriptions. We fitted Cox proportional hazard models controlling for age, sex, SES, comorbidity, disease duration, and number of concomitant antiseizure medications, as a marker of disease severity. We also performed a parallel forward-selection change in estimate strategy to explore which specific comorbidities contributed to the largest changes in the hazard ratio. RESULTS: A total of 13 488 participants were followed for a median 3.2 years (interquartile range = 2.4-4.0 years), including 1628 tertiary epilepsy outpatients, 1384 patients with epilepsy, 176 with PNES, and 59 with both. Eighty-two percent of epileptic seizures and 92% of typical PNES events were captured in an epilepsy monitoring unit. The age-/sex-/SES-adjusted hazard ratio was elevated for epilepsy (4.74, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.36-6.68) and PNES (3.46, 95% CI = 1.38-8.68) and remained elevated for epilepsy (3.21, 95% CI = 2.22-4.63) but not PNES (2.15, 95% CI = .77-6.04) after comorbidity adjustment. PNES had more pre-existing comorbidities (p = .0007), with a three times greater median weighted Rx-RiskV score. Psychotic illness, opioid analgesia, malignancies, and nonopioid analgesia had the greatest influence on PNES comorbid risk. SIGNIFICANCE: Higher comorbidity appears to explain the excess PNES mortality and may represent either a wider underrecognized somatoform disorder or a psychological response to physical illness. Better understanding and management of the bidirectional relationship of these wider somatic treatments in PNES could potentially reduce the risk of death.

Adherence patterns in antiseizure medications influencing risk of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy: A data linkage study using dispensed prescriptions.

OBJECTIVE: Medication adherence is considered an important risk factor for sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP), although measurement accuracy is difficult. Using prescription dispensations, this study aims to estimate antiseizure medication (ASM) adherence and identify adherence patterns that influence epilepsy mortality. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study of tertiary epilepsy outpatients seen at St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, from January 1, 2012 until December 31, 2017. Privacy-preserving data linkage with the Australian national prescription, death, and coroner's databases was performed. We fitted a four-cluster longitudinal group-based trajectory model for ASM adherence from recurring 90-day windows of prescription dispensations during a 3-year "landmark period" from January 1, 2012 to December 31, 2014, using the AdhereR package. We estimated the risk of SUDEP and all-cause death for each adherence pattern during an "observation period" from January 1, 2015 to December 31, 2017. The Cox proportional hazards and logistic regression models were adjusted for age, sex, socioeconomic status, epilepsy duration, comorbidity, drug resistance, and inadequate seizure control. RESULTS: One thousand one hundred eighty-seven participants were observed for a median of 3.2 years (interquartile range = 2.4-4.0 years). We observed 66 deaths with 10 SUDEP cases during the observation period. We identified four patterns of ASM adherence: good, 51%; declining, 24%; poor, 16%; and very poor, 9%. Declining adherence was associated with an increased risk for SUDEP, with hazard ratio (HR) = 8.43 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.10-64.45) at 1 year and HR = 9.17 (95% CI = 1.16-72.21) at 3 years. Compared to no ASM therapeutic change, the addition of a second to fourth ASM offered increased protection against SUDEP in patients with continuing drug-resistant epilepsy. SIGNIFICANCE: ASM nonadherence was observed in half of outpatients with epilepsy. A declining pattern of adherence, observed in a quarter of patients, was associated with more than eight times increased risk of SUDEP. Any ongoing medication interventions must include strategies to maintain and improve ASM adherence if we are to reduce the risk of SUDEP.

A cross-sectional investigation of cognition and epileptiform discharges in juvenile absence epilepsy.

OBJECTIVES: Despite the prevalence of cognitive symptoms in the idiopathic generalized epilepsies (IGEs), cognitive dysfunction in juvenile absence epilepsy (JAE), a common yet understudied IGE subtype, remains poorly understood. This descriptive study provides a novel, comprehensive characterization of cognitive functioning in a JAE sample and examines the relationship between cognition and 24-h epileptiform discharge load. METHOD: Forty-four individuals diagnosed with JAE underwent cognitive assessment using Woodcock Johnson III Test of Cognitive Abilities with concurrent 24-h ambulatory EEG monitoring. Generalized epileptiform discharges of any length, and prolonged generalized discharges ≥3 s were quantified across wakefulness and sleep. The relationship between standardized cognitive scores and epileptiform discharges was assessed through regression models. RESULTS: Cognitive performances in overall intellectual ability, acquired comprehension-knowledge, processing speed, long-term memory storage and retrieval, and executive processes were 0.63-1.07 standard deviation (SD) units lower in the JAE group compared to the population reference mean, adjusted for educational attainment. Prolonged discharges (≥3 s) were recorded in 20 patients (47.6%) from 42 available electroencephalography (EEG) studies and were largely unreported. Duration and number of prolonged discharges were associated with reduced processing speed and long-term memory storage and retrieval. SIGNIFICANCE: Cognitive dysfunction is seen in patients with JAE across various cognitive abilities, including those representing more stable processes like general intellect. During 24-h EEG, prolonged epileptiform discharges are common yet underreported in JAE despite treatment, and they show moderate effects on cognitive abilities. If epileptiform burden is a modifiable predictor of cognitive dysfunction, therapeutic interventions should consider quantitative 24-h EEG with routine neuropsychological screening. The growing recognition of the spectrum of neuropsychological comorbidities of IGE highlights the value of multidisciplinary approaches to explore the causes and consequences of cognitive deficits in epilepsy.

Shortages of antiseizure medications in Australia and the association with patient switching, and adherence in a community setting.

PURPOSE: To quantify sponsor-reported shortages of oral antiseizure medications in Australia, estimate the number of patients impacted, and the association between shortages and brand or formulation switching, and changes in adherence. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of sponsor-reported shortages (defined as where the supply of a medicine will not or will not be likely to meet the demand over a 6-month period) of antiseizure medications reported to the Medicine Shortages Reports Database (Therapeutic Goods Administration, Australia); cross-referencing shortages to the IQVIA-NostraData Dispensing Data (LRx) database, a deidentified, population-level dataset collecting longitudinal dispensation data on individual patients from ∼75% of Australian community pharmacy scripts. RESULTS: Ninety-seven sponsor-reported ASM shortages were identified between 2019 and 2020; of those, 90 (93%) were shortages of generic ASM brands. Of 1,247,787 patients dispensed ≥1 ASMs, 242,947 (19.5%) were impacted by shortages. Sponsor-reported shortages occurred more frequently before the COVID-19 pandemic versus during the pandemic, however, shortages were estimated to affect more patients during the pandemic than before the pandemic. An estimated 330,872 patient-level shortage events were observed, and 98.5% were associated with shortages of generic ASM brands. Shortages occurred at a rate of 41.06 shortages per 100 person-years in patients on generic ASM brands versus 0.83 shortages per 100 person-years in patients on originator ASM brands. In patients taking a formulation of levetiracetam affected by a shortage, 67.6% switched to a different levetiracetam brand or formulation during shortages compared with 46.6% in non-shortage periods. CONCLUSIONS: Approximately 20% of patients on ASMs were estimated to have been impacted by an ASM shortage in Australia. The rate of patient-level shortages was approximately 50 times higher for patients on generic ASM brands versus originator brands. Shortages of levetiracetam were associated with formulation and brand switching. Improved supply chain management amongst sponsors of generic ASMs is needed to maintain the continuity of supply in Australia.

Effectiveness, safety and tolerability of perampanel by age group when used to treat people with focal and generalized epilepsy in clinical practice: The PERMIT Extension study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness and safety/tolerability of perampanel (PER) in people with epilepsy (PWE) treated in everyday clinical practice for focal and generalized seizures, both in the total cohort and by age group. METHODS: The PERMIT Extension study was a pooled analysis of data from PWE included in two large previous clinical practice studies (PERMIT and PROVE). Retention was assessed over 12 months. Effectiveness was assessed based on total seizures and by seizure type (focal and generalized) after 3, 6, and 12 months of PER treatment and at final follow-up (last observation carried forward; "last visit"); assessments included responder rate (≥50% seizure frequency reduction from baseline) and seizure freedom rate (no seizures since at least the previous visit). Safety/tolerability was assessed throughout PER treatment by evaluating adverse events (AEs). All assessments were conducted for the total population and by age category (<12, ≥12 to <18, ≥18 to <65, and ≥65 years at baseline). RESULTS: Full Analysis Set included 6,822 PWE (51.1% female; mean age, 36.9 years; mean duration of epilepsy 21.4 years) with 6,433, 4,648, and 6,233 PWE assessed for retention, effectiveness, and safety/tolerability, respectively. The majority of PWE (81.1%) were aged 18-64 at baseline, with 4.5% aged <12 years, 8.4% aged 12-17 years, and 5.9% aged ≥65 years. In the overall population, retention rates at 3, 6, and 12 months were 88.0%, 77.6%, and 61.4%, respectively; responder rates at 12 months were 58.5% for total seizures, 54.6% for focal seizures, and 77.7% for generalized seizures, and corresponding seizure freedom rates were 23.6%, 19.0%, and 51.3%, respectively. PER was effective regardless of age category, although effectiveness was greatest in PWE aged ≥65 years, for both focal and generalized seizures. In the overall population, the incidence of AEs was 49.2% and the most frequent AEs (≥5% of PWE) were dizziness/vertigo (13.4%), somnolence (8.8%), irritability (7.3%), and behavioral disorders (5.3%); AEs led to treatment discontinuation in 18.3% of PWE over 12 months. The incidence of AEs and the discontinuation rate due to AEs increased with increasing age (55.0% and 23.9%, respectively, in PWE aged ≥65 years). CONCLUSION: In this study, the largest pooled analysis of PER clinical practice data conducted to date, PER was shown to be effective and generally well tolerated when used to treat people with focal or generalized epilepsy in everyday clinical practice, regardless of age category. No new or unexpected side effects emerged following long-term use in the real-world setting.

Neuroimaging characteristics may aid in diagnosis, subtyping, and prognosis in autoimmune encephalitis.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the utility of neuroimaging characteristics as biomarkers of prognosis in seropositive autoimmune encephalitis (AE). METHODS: In this multi-center study, we retrospectively analyzed 66 cases of seropositive AE. The MRI and PET imaging was assessed by independent visual inspection. Whole brain and regional volumes were imputed by IcoMetrix, an automated volumetric assessment package. The modified Rankin Scale (mRS) was utilized to assess the patients' follow-up disability. Other outcomes were mortality, first line treatment failure, medial temporal lobe (MTL) atrophy, and clinical relapse. Univariate and multivariable regression analysis was performed. RESULTS: Abnormalities on MRI were detected in 35.1% of patients, while PET was abnormal in 46.4%. Initial median whole brain and hippocampal volumes were below the 5th and 20th percentile respectively compared to an age-matched healthy database. After a median follow-up of 715 days, 85.2% had good functional outcome (mRS ≤ 2). Nine patients developed MTL atrophy during follow-up. On multivariable analysis, inflammatory MTL changes were associated with development of MTL atrophy (HR 19.6, p = 0.007) and initial hippocampal volume had an inverse relationship with mortality (HR 0.04, p = 0.011). Patients who developed MTL atrophy had a reduced chance of good final mRS (HR 0.16, p = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS: Neuroimaging on initial hospital admission may be provide important diagnostic and prognostic information. This study demonstrates that structural and inflammatory changes of the MTL may have importance in clinical and radiological prognosis in seropositive AE.

Brainwaves beyond diagnosis: Wider applications of electroencephalography in idiopathic generalized epilepsy.

Electroencephalography (EEG) has long been used as a versatile and noninvasive diagnostic tool in epilepsy. With the advent of digital EEG, more advanced applications of EEG have emerged. Compared with technologically advanced practice in focal epilepsies, the utilization of EEG in idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE) has been lagging, often restricted to a simple diagnostic tool. In this narrative review, we provide an overview of broader applications of EEG beyond this narrow scope, discussing how the current clinical and research applications of EEG may potentially be extended to IGE. The current literature, although limited, suggests that EEG can be used in syndromic classification, guiding antiseizure medication therapy, predicting prognosis, unraveling biorhythms, and investigating functional brain connectivity of IGE. We emphasize the need for longer recordings, particularly 24-h ambulatory EEG, to capture discharges reflecting circadian and sleep-wake cycle-associated variations for wider EEG applications in IGE. Finally, we highlight the challenges and limitations of the current body of literature and suggest future directions to encourage and enhance more extensive applications of this potent tool.

Second-line immunotherapy and functional outcomes in autoimmune encephalitis: A systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis.

Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) is a neurological disorder caused by autoimmune attack on cerebral proteins. Experts currently recommend staged immunotherapeutic management, with first-line immunotherapy followed by second-line immunotherapy if response to first-line therapy is inadequate. Meta-analysis of the evidence base may provide higher quality evidence to support this recommendation. We undertook a systematic review of observational cohort studies reporting AE patients treated with either second-line immunotherapy or first-line immunotherapy alone, and outcomes reported using the modified Rankin Scale (mRS; search date: April 22, 2020). We performed several one-stage multilevel individual patient data (IPD) meta-analyses to examine the association between second-line immunotherapy and final mRS scores (PROSPERO ID CRD42020181805). IPD were obtained for 356 patients from 25 studies. Most studies were rated as moderate to high risk of bias. Seventy-one patients (71/356, 19%) were treated with second-line immunotherapy. We did not find a statistically significant association between treatment with second-line immunotherapy and final mRS score for the cohort overall (odds ratio [OR] = 1.74, 95% confidence interval [CI] = .98-3.08, p = .057), or subgroups with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis (OR = 1.03, 95% CI = .45-2.38, p = .944) or severe AE (maximum mRS score > 2; OR = 1.673, 95% CI = .93-3.00, p = .085). Treatment with second-line immunotherapy was associated with higher final mRS scores in subgroups with anti-leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 AE (OR = 6.70, 95% CI = 1.28-35.1, p = .024) and long-term (at least 12 months) follow-up (OR = 3.94, 95% CI = 1.67-9.27, p = .002). We did not observe an association between treatment with second-line immunotherapy and lower final mRS scores in patients with AE. This result should be interpreted with caution, given the risk of bias, limited adjustment for disease severity, and insensitivity of the mRS in estimating psychiatric and cognitive disability.

Psychometric deficits in autoimmune encephalitis: A retrospective study from the Australian Autoimmune Encephalitis Consortium.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Despite the rapid increase in research examining outcomes in autoimmune encephalitis (AE) patients, there are few cohort studies examining cognitive outcomes in this population. The current study aimed to characterise psychometric outcomes in this population, and explore variables that may predict psychometric outcomes. METHODS: This retrospective observational study collected psychometric data from 59 patients across six secondary and tertiary referral centres in metropolitan hospitals in Victoria, Australia between January 2008 and July 2019. Frequency and pattern analysis were employed to define and characterize psychometric outcomes. Univariable logistic regression was performed to examine predictors of intact and pathological psychometric outcomes. RESULTS: Deficits in psychometric markers of executive dysfunction were the most common finding in this cohort, followed by deficits on tasks sensitive to memory. A total of 54.2% of patients were classified as having psychometric impairments across at least two cognitive domains. Twenty-nine patterns were observed, suggesting outcomes in AE are complex. None of the demographic data, clinical features or auxiliary examination variables were predictors of psychometric outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive outcomes in AE are complex. Further detailed and standardized cognitive testing, in combination with magnetic resonance imaging volumetrics and serum/cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers, is required to provide rigorous assessments of disease outcomes.

Exploring the Semantic Structure of WMS-IV Verbal Paired Associates using the Hub-and-Spoke Model.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to identify a well-fitting and theoretically justified item-level latent factor structure for the Wechsler Memory Scales (WMS)-IV verbal paired associates (VerbalPA) subtest to facilitate the ease and accuracy of score interpretations for patients with lateralized temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). METHODS: Archival data were used from 250 heterogeneous neurosciences patients who were administered the WMS-IV as part of a standard neuropsychological assessment. Three theoretically motivated models for the latent structure of VerbalPA were tested using confirmatory factor analysis. The first model, based on cognitive principles of semantic processing from hub-and-spoke theory, tested whether performance is related to specific semantic features of target words. The second, motivated by the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of cognitive abilities, investigated whether the associative properties of items influence performance. A third, Hybrid model tested whether performance is related to both semantic and associative properties of items. The best-fitting model was tested for diagnostic group effects contrasting the heterogeneous neuroscience patients with subsets of left and right TLE (n = 51, n = 26, respectively) patients. RESULTS: The Hybrid model was found to have the best fit. Patients with left TLE scored significantly less well than the heterogeneous neurosciences sample on selected semantic factor scores, although the effect size was small. CONCLUSIONS: Future editions of the WMS may consider implementing a semantic scoring structure for the VerbalPA to facilitate test score interpretation. Additionally, these results suggest that principles of hub-and-spoke theory may be integrated into CHC cognitive ability taxonomy.

Semiologic differences between bilateral tonic-clonic seizures of focal onset and generalized onset.

BACKGROUND: Focal semiologies have been described in idiopathic generalized epilepsies (IGE) and generalized-onset bilateral tonic-clonic seizures (GBTCS). These focal signs may lead to wrong diagnosis and inappropriate choice of antiseizure medications. We sought to investigate the differences in focal semiologic features between GBTCS and focal-onset bilateral tonic-clonic seizures (FBTCS). METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed video-EEG data of captured GBTCS and FBTCS over a period of five years. The presence or absence of 12 focal signs as well seizure duration and time to head version was tabulated for each seizure. We used the chi-square test for independence and Fisher's exact test to investigate the occurrence of each focal sign in FBTCS compared with GBTCS. Additionally, we used receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves to explore if the seizure duration and time to head version from the ictal onset can reliably differentiate between FBTCS and GBTCS. Finally, we employed hierarchical cluster analysis to visualize how these focal signs appear in combination. RESULTS: Head version (p <.001), preceding automatisms (p <.001), eye version (p <.001), unilateral facial clonic activity (p <.001), and mouth deviation (p =.004) were found to be significantly more frequent in FBTCS. Longer seizures were highly in favor of FBTCS whereas shorter time to head version from the ictal onset indicated GBTCS in the ROC curve analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Though focal signs occur in GBTCS, careful evaluation of semiology can help the clinician distinguish FBTCS from GBTCS.

Prevalence, risk factors, and prognosis of drug-resistant epilepsy in autoimmune encephalitis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence and biomarkers of drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE) in patients with autoimmune encephalitis (AIE). METHODS: Sixty-nine patients with AIE were recruited retrospectively and electroencephalographies (EEGs) were reviewed using a standard reporting proforma. Associations between EEG biomarkers and DRE development at 12 months were examined using logistic regression modeling and were utilized to create a DRE risk score. RESULTS: Sixteen percent of patients with AIE developed DRE at 12-month follow-up. The presence of status epilepticus (SE) (OR 11.50, 95% CI [2.81, 51.86], p-value <0.001), temporal lobe focality (OR 9.90, 95% CI [2.60, 50.71], p-value 0.001) and periodic discharges (OR 19.12, 95% CI [3.79, 191.10], p-value 0.001) on the admission EEG were associated with the development of DRE at 12 months. These variables were utilized to create a clinically applicable risk score for the prediction of DRE development. CONCLUSIONS: Drug-resistant epilepsy is an infrequent complication of AIE. Electroencephalography changes during the acute illness can predict the risk of DRE at 12 months post-acute AIE. SIGNIFICANCE: The identified EEG biomarkers provide the basis to generate a clinically applicable prediction tool which could be used to inform treatment, prognosis, and select patients for acute treatment trials.

Electroclinical biomarkers of autoimmune encephalitis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the utility of electroencephalography (EEG) changes as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in acute autoimmune encephalitis (AIE). METHODS: One hundred and thirty-one patients with AIE were recruited retrospectively across 7 hospitals. Clinical data were collected during admission and at 12 months. EEGs were reviewed using a standard reporting proforma. Associations between EEG biomarkers, AIE subtypes, and clinical outcomes were assessed using logistic regression modeling. RESULTS: Presence of superimposed fast activity (OR 34.33; 95% CI 3.90, 4527.27; p < 0.001), fluctuating EEG abnormality (OR 6.60; 95% CI 1.60, 37.59; p = 0.008), and hemispheric focality (OR 28.48; 95% CI 3.14, 3773.14; p < 0.001) were significantly more common in N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibody-associated patients with AIE compared to other AIE subtypes. Abnormal background rhythm was associated with a poor mRS (modified Rankin score) at discharge (OR 0.29; 95% CI 0.10, 0.75; p = 0.01) and improvement in mRS at 12 months compared with admission mRS (3.72; 95% CI 1.14, 15.23; p = 0.04). SIGNIFICANCE: We have identified EEG biomarkers that differentiate NMDAR AIE from other subtypes. We have also demonstrated EEG biomarkers that are associated with poor functional outcomes.

Domino-like transient dynamics at seizure onset in epilepsy.

The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) groups seizures into "focal", "generalized" and "unknown" based on whether the seizure onset is confined to a brain region in one hemisphere, arises in several brain region simultaneously, or is not known, respectively. This separation fails to account for the rich diversity of clinically and experimentally observed spatiotemporal patterns of seizure onset and even less so for the properties of the brain networks generating them. We consider three different patterns of domino-like seizure onset in Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy (IGE) and present a novel approach to classification of seizures. To understand how these patterns are generated on networks requires understanding of the relationship between intrinsic node dynamics and coupling between nodes in the presence of noise, which currently is unknown. We investigate this interplay here in the framework of domino-like recruitment across a network. In particular, we use a phenomenological model of seizure onset with heterogeneous coupling and node properties, and show that in combination they generate a range of domino-like onset patterns observed in the IGE seizures. We further explore the individual contribution of heterogeneous node dynamics and coupling by interpreting in-vitro experimental data in which the speed of onset can be chemically modulated. This work contributes to a better understanding of possible drivers for the spatiotemporal patterns observed at seizure onset and may ultimately contribute to a more personalized approach to classification of seizure types in clinical practice.

Can semiology differentiate between bilateral tonic-clonic seizures of focal-onset and generalized-onset? A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: Bilateral tonic-clonic seizures are encountered in both focal and generalized epilepsies. We reviewed the literature regarding the presence of focal signs in generalized-onset tonic-clonic seizures (GOTCS) and the utility of semiology in differentiating those from focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizures (FBTCS). METHODS: We conducted a comprehensive literature search using four electronic databases (Medline, Embase, Web of Science, and Psychinfo) and constructed a systematic review in keeping with the Preferred Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines. RESULTS: We included 13 studies on focal semiological features of GOTCS. These studies included a total of 952 participants. The key focal signs described in GOTCS included: early head version, figure of four sign, asymmetric seizure termination, and a multitude of auras as well as automatisms. Additionally, we reviewed five studies that investigated the use of semiology to differentiate GOTCS from FBTCS; these studies had a total of 289 participants. Asymmetry in clonic phase, side-to-side axial movements, asymmetrical seizure termination, figure of four sign, index finger pointing, and fanning posture of the hand were found to be significantly more frequent in FBTCS compared with GOTCS. Furthermore, combinations of focal semiological features occurring in a single seizure were found to be suggestive of FBTCS rather than GOTCS. CONCLUSION: Focal signs are often evident in GOTCS. Though the observation of multiple focal signs within a given seizure may be in favor of an FBTCS, our findings caution against differentiating between the two seizure types based on semiology alone due to considerable overlap in focal features.

Resting-state functional connectivity in the idiopathic generalized epilepsies: A systematic review and meta-analysis of EEG and MEG studies.

For idiopathic generalized epilepsies (IGE), brain network analysis is emerging as a biomarker for potential use in clinical care. To determine whether people with IGE show alterations in resting-state brain connectivity compared to healthy controls, and to quantify these differences, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of EEG and magnetoencephalography (MEG) functional connectivity and network studies. The review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. Twenty-two studies were eligible for inclusion. Outcomes from individual studies supported hypotheses for interictal, resting-state brain connectivity alterations in IGE patients compared to healthy controls. In contrast, meta-analysis from six studies of common network metrics clustering coefficient, path length, mean degree and nodal strength showed no significant differences between IGE and control groups (effect sizes ranged from -0.151 -1.78). The null findings of the meta-analysis and the heterogeneity of the included studies highlights the importance of developing standardized, validated methodologies for future research. Network neuroscience has significant potential as both a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in epilepsy, though individual variability in network dynamics needs to be better understood and accounted for.