Anti-CRISPRs: Protein Inhibitors of CRISPR-Cas Systems.

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) together with their accompanying cas (CRISPR-associated) genes are found frequently in bacteria and archaea, serving to defend against invading foreign DNA, such as viral genomes. CRISPR-Cas systems provide a uniquely powerful defense because they can adapt to newly encountered genomes. The adaptive ability of these systems has been exploited, leading to their development as highly effective tools for genome editing. The widespread use of CRISPR-Cas systems has driven a need for methods to control their activity. This review focuses on anti-CRISPRs (Acrs), proteins produced by viruses and other mobile genetic elements that can potently inhibit CRISPR-Cas systems. Discovered in 2013, there are now 54 distinct families of these proteins described, and the functional mechanisms of more than a dozen have been characterized in molecular detail. The investigation of Acrs is leading to a variety of practical applications and is providing exciting new insight into the biology of CRISPR-Cas systems.

Anti-CRISPR-Associated Proteins Are Crucial Repressors of Anti-CRISPR Transcription.

Phages express anti-CRISPR (Acr) proteins to inhibit CRISPR-Cas systems that would otherwise destroy their genomes. Most acr genes are located adjacent to anti-CRISPR-associated (aca) genes, which encode proteins with a helix-turn-helix DNA-binding motif. The conservation of aca genes has served as a signpost for the identification of acr genes, but the function of the proteins encoded by these genes has not been investigated. Here we reveal that an acr-associated promoter drives high levels of acr transcription immediately after phage DNA injection and that Aca proteins subsequently repress this transcription. Without Aca activity, this strong transcription is lethal to a phage. Our results demonstrate how sufficient levels of Acr proteins accumulate early in the infection process to inhibit existing CRISPR-Cas complexes in the host cell. They also imply that the conserved role of Aca proteins is to mitigate the deleterious effects of strong constitutive transcription from acr promoters.

A Broad-Spectrum Inhibitor of CRISPR-Cas9.

CRISPR-Cas9 proteins function within bacterial immune systems to target and destroy invasive DNA and have been harnessed as a robust technology for genome editing. Small bacteriophage-encoded anti-CRISPR proteins (Acrs) can inactivate Cas9, providing an efficient off switch for Cas9-based applications. Here, we show that two Acrs, AcrIIC1 and AcrIIC3, inhibit Cas9 by distinct strategies. AcrIIC1 is a broad-spectrum Cas9 inhibitor that prevents DNA cutting by multiple divergent Cas9 orthologs through direct binding to the conserved HNH catalytic domain of Cas9. A crystal structure of an AcrIIC1-Cas9 HNH domain complex shows how AcrIIC1 traps Cas9 in a DNA-bound but catalytically inactive state. By contrast, AcrIIC3 blocks activity of a single Cas9 ortholog and induces Cas9 dimerization while preventing binding to the target DNA. These two orthogonal mechanisms allow for separate control of Cas9 target binding and cleavage and suggest applications to allow DNA binding while preventing DNA cutting by Cas9.

Structure Reveals Mechanisms of Viral Suppressors that Intercept a CRISPR RNA-Guided Surveillance Complex.

Genetic conflict between viruses and their hosts drives evolution and genetic innovation. Prokaryotes evolved CRISPR-mediated adaptive immune systems for protection from viral infection, and viruses have evolved diverse anti-CRISPR (Acr) proteins that subvert these immune systems. The adaptive immune system in Pseudomonas aeruginosa (type I-F) relies on a 350 kDa CRISPR RNA (crRNA)-guided surveillance complex (Csy complex) to bind foreign DNA and recruit a trans-acting nuclease for target degradation. Here, we report the cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the Csy complex bound to two different Acr proteins, AcrF1 and AcrF2, at an average resolution of 3.4 Å. The structure explains the molecular mechanism for immune system suppression, and structure-guided mutations show that the Acr proteins bind to residues essential for crRNA-mediated detection of DNA. Collectively, these data provide a snapshot of an ongoing molecular arms race between viral suppressors and the immune system they target.

Naturally Occurring Off-Switches for CRISPR-Cas9.

CRISPR-Cas9 technology would be enhanced by the ability to inhibit Cas9 function spatially, temporally, or conditionally. Previously, we discovered small proteins encoded by bacteriophages that inhibit the CRISPR-Cas systems of their host bacteria. These "anti-CRISPRs" were specific to type I CRISPR-Cas systems that do not employ the Cas9 protein. We posited that nature would also yield Cas9 inhibitors in response to the evolutionary arms race between bacteriophages and their hosts. Here, we report the discovery of three distinct families of anti-CRISPRs that specifically inhibit the CRISPR-Cas9 system of Neisseria meningitidis. We show that these proteins bind directly to N. meningitidis Cas9 (NmeCas9) and can be used as potent inhibitors of genome editing by this system in human cells. These anti-CRISPR proteins now enable "off-switches" for CRISPR-Cas9 activity and provide a genetically encodable means to inhibit CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing in eukaryotes. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

An anti-CRISPR that pulls apart a CRISPR-Cas complex.

In biological systems, the activities of macromolecular complexes must sometimes be turned off. Thus, a wide variety of protein inhibitors has evolved for this purpose. These inhibitors function through diverse mechanisms, including steric blocking of crucial interactions, enzymatic modification of key residues or substrates, and perturbation of post-translational modifications1. Anti-CRISPRs-proteins that block the activity of CRISPR-Cas systems-are one of the largest groups of inhibitors described, with more than 90 families that function through diverse mechanisms2-4. Here, we characterize the anti-CRISPR AcrIF25, and we show that it inhibits the type I-F CRISPR-Cas system by pulling apart the fully assembled effector complex. AcrIF25 binds to the predominant CRISPR RNA-binding components of this complex, comprising six Cas7 subunits, and strips them from the RNA. Structural and biochemical studies indicate that AcrIF25 removes one Cas7 subunit at a time, starting at one end of the complex. Notably, this feat is achieved with no apparent enzymatic activity. To our knowledge, AcrIF25 is the first example of a protein that disassembles a large and stable macromolecular complex in the absence of an external energy source. As such, AcrIF25 establishes a paradigm for macromolecular complex inhibitors that may be used for biotechnological applications.

A phage-encoded anti-activator inhibits quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The arms race between bacteria and phages has led to the evolution of diverse anti-phage defenses, several of which are controlled by quorum-sensing pathways. In this work, we characterize a quorum-sensing anti-activator protein, Aqs1, found in Pseudomonas phage DMS3. We show that Aqs1 inhibits LasR, the master regulator of quorum sensing, and present the crystal structure of the Aqs1-LasR complex. The 69-residue Aqs1 protein also inhibits PilB, the type IV pilus assembly ATPase protein, which blocks superinfection by phages that require the pilus for infection. This study highlights the remarkable ability of small phage proteins to bind multiple host proteins and disrupt key biological pathways. As quorum sensing influences various anti-phage defenses, Aqs1 provides a mechanism by which infecting phages might simultaneously dampen multiple defenses. Because quorum-sensing systems are broadly distributed across bacteria, this mechanism of phage counter-defense may play an important role in phage-host evolutionary dynamics.

Diverse yeast antiviral systems prevent lethal pathogenesis caused by the L-A mycovirus.

Recent studies show that antiviral systems are remarkably conserved from bacteria to mammals, demonstrating that unique insights into these systems can be gained by studying microbial organisms. Unlike in bacteria, however, where phage infection can be lethal, no cytotoxic viral consequence is known in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae even though it is chronically infected with a double-stranded RNA mycovirus called L-A. This remains the case despite the previous identification of conserved antiviral systems that limit L-A replication. Here, we show that these systems collaborate to prevent rampant L-A replication, which causes lethality in cells grown at high temperature. Exploiting this discovery, we use an overexpression screen to identify antiviral functions for the yeast homologs of polyA-binding protein (PABPC1) and the La-domain containing protein Larp1, which are both involved in viral innate immunity in humans. Using a complementary loss of function approach, we identify new antiviral functions for the conserved RNA exonucleases REX2 and MYG1; the SAGA and PAF1 chromatin regulatory complexes; and HSF1, the master transcriptional regulator of the proteostatic stress response. Through investigation of these antiviral systems, we show that L-A pathogenesis is associated with an activated proteostatic stress response and the accumulation of cytotoxic protein aggregates. These findings identify proteotoxic stress as an underlying cause of L-A pathogenesis and further advance yeast as a powerful model system for the discovery and characterization of conserved antiviral systems.

Core defense hotspots within Pseudomonas aeruginosa are a consistent and rich source of anti-phage defense systems.

Bacteria use a diverse arsenal of anti-phage immune systems, including CRISPR-Cas and restriction enzymes. Recent advances in anti-phage system discovery and annotation tools have unearthed many unique systems, often encoded in horizontally transferred defense islands, which can be horizontally transferred. Here, we developed Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) for defense systems and queried microbial genomes on the NCBI database. Out of the 30 species with >200 completely sequenced genomes, our analysis found Pseudomonas aeruginosa exhibits the greatest diversity of anti-phage systems, as measured by Shannon entropy. Using network analysis to identify the common neighbors of anti-phage systems, we identified two core defense hotspot loci (cDHS1 and cDHS2). cDHS1 is up to 224 kb (median: 26 kb) with varied arrangements of more than 30 distinct immune systems across isolates, while cDHS2 has 24 distinct systems (median: 6 kb). Both cDHS regions are occupied in a majority of P. aeruginosa isolates. Most cDHS genes are of unknown function potentially representing new anti-phage systems, which we validated by identifying a novel anti-phage system (Shango) commonly encoded in cDHS1. Identifying core genes flanking immune islands could simplify immune system discovery and may represent popular landing spots for diverse MGEs carrying anti-phage systems.

Role of the CDKL1-SOX11 signaling axis in acute kidney injury.

The biology of the cyclin-dependent kinase-like (CDKL) kinase family remains enigmatic. Contrary to their nomenclature, CDKLs do not rely on cyclins for activation and are not involved in cell cycle regulation. Instead, they share structural similarities with mitogen-activated protein kinases and glycogen synthase kinase-3, although their specific functions and associated signaling pathways are still unknown. Previous studies have shown that the activation of CDKL5 kinase contributes to the development of acute kidney injury (AKI) by suppressing the protective SOX9-dependent transcriptional program in tubular epithelial cells. In the current study, we measured the functional activity of all five CDKL kinases and discovered that, in addition to CDKL5, CDKL1 is also activated in tubular epithelial cells during AKI. To explore the role of CDKL1, we generated a germline knockout mouse that exhibited no abnormalities under normal conditions. Notably, when these mice were challenged with bilateral ischemia-reperfusion and rhabdomyolysis, they were found to be protected from AKI. Further mechanistic investigations revealed that CDKL1 phosphorylates and destabilizes SOX11, contributing to tubular dysfunction. In summary, this study has unveiled a previously unknown CDKL1-SOX11 axis that drives tubular dysfunction during AKI.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Identifying and targeting pathogenic protein kinases holds potential for drug discovery in treating acute kidney injury. Our study, using novel germline knockout mice, revealed that Cdkl1 kinase deficiency does not affect mouse viability but provides protection against acute kidney injury. This underscores the importance of Cdkl1 kinase in kidney injury and supports the development of targeted small-molecule inhibitors as potential therapeutics.

A genetically inducible endothelial niche enables vascularization of human kidney organoids with multilineage maturation and emergence of renin expressing cells.

Vascularization plays a critical role in organ maturation and cell-type development. Drug discovery, organ mimicry, and ultimately transplantation hinge on achieving robust vascularization of in vitro engineered organs. Here, focusing on human kidney organoids, we overcame this hurdle by combining a human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) line containing an inducible ETS translocation variant 2 (ETV2) (a transcription factor playing a role in endothelial cell development) that directs endothelial differentiation in vitro, with a non-transgenic iPSC line in suspension organoid culture. The resulting human kidney organoids show extensive endothelialization with a cellular identity most closely related to human kidney endothelia. Endothelialized kidney organoids also show increased maturation of nephron structures, an associated fenestrated endothelium with de novo formation of glomerular and venous subtypes, and the emergence of drug-responsive renin expressing cells. The creation of an engineered vascular niche capable of improving kidney organoid maturation and cell type complexity is a significant step forward in the path to clinical translation. Thus, incorporation of an engineered endothelial niche into a previously published kidney organoid protocol allowed the orthogonal differentiation of endothelial and parenchymal cell types, demonstrating the potential for applicability to other basic and translational organoid studies.

Synthesis, Structure-Activity Relationship Study, Bioactivity, and Nephrotoxicity Evaluation of the Proposed Structure of the Cyclic Lipodepsipeptide Brevicidine B.

The brevicidines represent a novel class of nonribosomal antimicrobial peptides that possess remarkable potency and selectivity toward highly problematic and resistant Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. A recently discovered member of the brevicidine family, coined brevicidine B (2), comprises a single amino acid substitution (from d-Tyr2 to d-Phe2) in the amino acid sequence of the linear moiety of brevicidine (1) and was reported to exhibit broader antimicrobial activity against both Gram-negative (MIC = 2-4 µgmL-1) and Gram-positive (MIC = 2-8 µgmL-1) pathogens. Encouraged by this, we herein report the first total synthesis of the proposed structure of brevicidine B (2), building on our previously reported synthetic strategy to access brevicidine (1). In agreement with the original isolation paper, pleasingly, synthetic 2 demonstrated antimicrobial activity toward Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae (MIC = 4-8 µgmL-1). Interestingly, however, synthetic 2 was inactive toward all of the tested Gram-positive pathogens, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. Substitution of d-Phe2 with its enantiomer, and other hydrophobic residues, yields analogues that were either inactive or only exhibited activity toward Gram-negative strains. The striking difference in the biological activity of our synthetic 2 compared to the reported natural compound warrants the re-evaluation of the original natural product for purity or possible differences in relative configuration. Finally, the evaluation of synthetic 1 and 2 in a human kidney organoid model of nephrotoxicity revealed substantial toxicity of both compounds, although 1 was less toxic than 2 and polymyxin B. These results indicate that modification to position 2 may afford a strategy to mitigate the nephrotoxicity of brevicidine.

Allenamides as a Powerful Tool to Incorporate Diversity: Thia-Michael Lipidation of Semisynthetic Peptides and Access to ß-Keto Amides.

Lipopeptides are an important class of biomolecules for drug development. Compared with conventional acylation, a chemoselective lipidation strategy offers a more efficient strategy for late-stage structural derivatisation of a peptide scaffold. It provides access to chemically diverse compounds possessing intriguing and non-native moieties. Utilising an allenamide, we report the first semisynthesis of antimicrobial lipopeptides leveraging a highly efficient thia-Michael addition of chemically diverse lipophilic thiols. Using chemoenzymatically prepared polymyxin B nonapeptide (PMBN) as a model scaffold, an optimised allenamide-mediated thia-Michael addition effected rapid and near quantitative lipidation, affording vinyl sulfide-linked lipopeptide derivatives. Harnessing the utility of this new methodology, 22 lipophilic thiols of unprecedented chemical diversity were introduced to the PMBN framework. These included alkyl thiols, substituted aromatic thiols, heterocyclic thiols and those bearing additional functional groups (e.g., amines), ultimately yielding analogues with potent Gram-negative antimicrobial activity and substantially attenuated nephrotoxicity. Furthermore, we report facile routes to transform the allenamide into a ß-keto amide on unprotected peptides, offering a powerful "jack-of-all-trades" synthetic intermediate to enable further peptide modification.

F-Type Pyocins Are Diverse Noncontractile Phage Tail-Like Weapons for Killing Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Most Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains produce bacteriocins derived from contractile or noncontractile phage tails known as R- and F-type pyocins, respectively. These bacteriocins possess strain-specific bactericidal activity against P. aeruginosa and likely increase evolutionary fitness through intraspecies competition. R-type pyocins have been studied extensively and show promise as alternatives to antibiotics. Although they have similar therapeutic potential, experimental studies on F-type pyocins are limited. Here, we provide a bioinformatic and experimental investigation of F-type pyocins. We introduce a systematic naming scheme for genes found in R- and F-type pyocin operons and identify 15 genes invariably found in strains producing F-type pyocins. Five proteins encoded at the 3' end of the F-type pyocin cluster are divergent in sequence and likely determine bactericidal specificity. We use sequence similarities among these proteins to define eleven distinct F-type pyocin groups, five of which had not been previously described. The five genes encoding the variable proteins associate in two modules that have clearly reassorted independently during the evolution of these operons. These proteins are considerably more diverse than the specificity-determining tail fibers of R-type pyocins, suggesting that F-type pyocins may have emerged earlier. Experimental studies on six F-type pyocin groups show that each displays a distinct spectrum of bactericidal activity. This activity is strongly influenced by the lipopolysaccharide O-antigen type, but other factors also play a role. F-type pyocins appear to kill as efficiently as R-type pyocins. These studies set the stage for the development of F-type pyocins as antibacterial therapeutics. IMPORTANCE Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen that causes antibiotic-resistant infections with high mortality rates, particularly in immunocompromised individuals and cystic fibrosis patients. Due to the increasing frequency of multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa infections, there is great need for the development of alternative therapeutics. In this study, we investigate one such potential therapeutic: F-type pyocins, which are bacteriocins naturally produced by P. aeruginosa that resemble noncontractile phage tails. We show that they are potent killers of P. aeruginosa and identify their probable bactericidal specificity determinants, which opens up the possibility of engineering them to precisely target strains of pathogenic bacteria. The resemblance of F-type pyocins to well-characterized phage tails will greatly facilitate their development into effective antibacterials.

Zinc finger protein 24-dependent transcription factor SOX9 up-regulation protects tubular epithelial cells during acute kidney injury.

Transcriptional profiling studies have identified several protective genes upregulated in tubular epithelial cells during acute kidney injury (AKI). Identifying upstream transcriptional regulators could lead to the development of therapeutic strategies augmenting the repair processes. SOX9 is a transcription factor controlling cell-fate during embryonic development and adult tissue homeostasis in multiple organs including the kidneys. SOX9 expression is low in adult kidneys; however, stress conditions can trigger its transcriptional upregulation in tubular epithelial cells. SOX9 plays a protective role during the early phase of AKI and facilitates repair during the recovery phase. To identify the upstream transcriptional regulators that drive SOX9 upregulation in tubular epithelial cells, we used an unbiased transcription factor screening approach. Preliminary screening and validation studies show that zinc finger protein 24 (ZFP24) governs SOX9 upregulation in tubular epithelial cells. ZFP24, a Cys2-His2 (C2H2) zinc finger protein, is essential for oligodendrocyte maturation and myelination; however, its role in the kidneys or in SOX9 regulation remains unknown. Here, we found that tubular epithelial ZFP24 gene ablation exacerbated ischemia, rhabdomyolysis, and cisplatin-associated AKI. Importantly, ZFP24 gene deletion resulted in suppression of SOX9 upregulation in injured tubular epithelial cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and promoter luciferase assays confirmed that ZFP24 bound to a specific site in both murine and human SOX9 promoters. Importantly, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutation in the ZFP24 binding site in the SOX9 promoter in vivo led to suppression of SOX9 upregulation during AKI. Thus, our findings identify ZFP24 as a critical stress-responsive transcription factor protecting tubular epithelial cells through SOX9 upregulation.

SIOP PODC adapted risk stratification and treatment guidelines: Recommendations for acute myeloid leukemia in resource-limited settings.

In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), limited resources, suboptimal risk stratification, and disproportionate patient-to-infrastructure ratio result in low survival of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML). A high incidence of relapse, inherent to the biology, renders management arduous. The challenge of treating AML in LMICs is of balancing the intensity of myelosuppressive chemotherapy, which appears necessary for cure, with available supportive care, which influences treatment-related mortality. The recommendations outlined in this paper are based on published evidence and expert opinion. The principle of this adapted protocol is to tailor treatment to available resources, reduce preventable toxic death, and direct limited resources toward those children who are most likely to be cured.

SIOP PODC-adapted treatment guidelines for craniopharyngioma in low- and middle-income settings.

Pediatric craniopharyngioma is a rare tumor with excellent survival but significant long-term morbidities due to the loco-regional tumor growth or secondary to its treatment. Visual impairment, panhypopituitarism, hypothalamic damage, and behavioral changes are among the main challenges. This tumor should be managed under the care of a multidisciplinary team to determine the optimum treatment within the available resources. This is particularly important for low middle-income countries where resources are variable. This report provides risk-stratified management guidelines for children diagnosed with craniopharyngioma in a resource-limited setting.

Anti-CRISPR AcrIF9 functions by inducing the CRISPR-Cas complex to bind DNA non-specifically.

Phages and other mobile genetic elements express anti-CRISPR proteins (Acrs) to protect their genomes from destruction by CRISPR-Cas systems. Acrs usually block the ability of CRISPR-Cas systems to bind or cleave their nucleic acid substrates. Here, we investigate an unusual Acr, AcrIF9, that induces a gain-of-function to a type I-F CRISPR-Cas (Csy) complex, causing it to bind strongly to DNA that lacks both a PAM sequence and sequence complementarity. We show that specific and non-specific dsDNA compete for the same site on the Csy:AcrIF9 complex with rapid exchange, but specific ssDNA appears to still bind through complementarity to the CRISPR RNA. Induction of non-specific DNA-binding is a shared property of diverse AcrIF9 homologues. Substitution of a conserved positively charged surface on AcrIF9 abrogated non-specific dsDNA-binding of the Csy:AcrIF9 complex, but specific dsDNA binding was maintained. AcrIF9 mutants with impaired non-specific dsDNA binding activity in vitro displayed a reduced ability to inhibit CRISPR-Cas activity in vivo. We conclude that misdirecting the CRISPR-Cas complex to bind non-specific DNA is a key component of the inhibitory mechanism of AcrIF9. This inhibitory mechanism is distinct from a previously characterized anti-CRISPR, AcrIF1, that sterically blocks DNA-binding, even though AcrIF1and AcrIF9 bind to the same site on the Csy complex.

Current status of African pediatric oncology education efforts aligned with the Global Initiative for Childhood Cancer.

Education of the pediatric oncology workforce is an important pillar of the World Health Organization CureAll technical package. This is not only limited to healthcare workers, but all stakeholders in the childhood cancer management process. It includes governmental structures, academic institutions, parents and communities. This review evaluated the current educational and advocacy training resources available to the childhood cancer community, the contribution of SIOP Africa in the continental educational needs and evaluated future needs to improve the management of pediatric malignancies in reaching the Global Initiative for Childhood Cancer goals. Childhood cancer, unlike adult cancers, has not been prioritized in African cancer control plans nor the teaching and advocacy surrounding pediatric oncology. The availability of formal training programs for pediatric oncologists, pediatric surgeons and radiotherapy specialists are limited to particular countries. In pharmacy and nutritional services, the exposure to pediatric oncology is limited while training in advocacy doesn't exist. Many nonacademic stakeholders are creating the opportunities in Africa to gain experience and train in these various fields, but formal training programs should still be advocated for. LEARNING POINTSThe African continent has various resources to increase the capacity of childhood cancer care stakeholders to increase their knowledge.African pediatric oncology teams rely on a multitude of international sources for training while developing their own.There is a greater need for formal, standardized cancer training especially for pediatric surgeons, radio-oncologists and nurses.Greater inclusion of pathologists, pediatric oncology pharmacists and dieticians into multidisciplinary care and childhood cancer training should be facilitated and resourced.Successful advocacy programs and tool kits exist in parts of Africa, but the training in advocacy is still underdeveloped.

Functional characterization of ion channels expressed in kidney organoids derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells.

Kidney organoids derived from human or rodent pluripotent stem cells have glomerular structures and differentiated/polarized nephron segments. Although there is an increasing understanding of the patterns of expression of transcripts and proteins within kidney organoids, there is a paucity of data regarding functional protein expression, in particular on transporters that mediate the vectorial transport of solutes. Using cells derived from kidney organoids, we examined the functional expression of key ion channels that are expressed in distal nephron segments: the large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channel, the renal outer medullary K+ (ROMK, Kir1.1) channel, and the epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC). RNA-sequencing analyses showed that genes encoding the pore-forming subunits of these transporters, and for BKCa channels, key accessory subunits, are expressed in kidney organoids. Expression and localization of selected ion channels was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy and immunoblot analysis. Electrophysiological analysis showed that BKCa and ROMK channels are expressed in different cell populations. These two cell populations also expressed other unidentified Ba2+-sensitive K+ channels. BKCa expression was confirmed at a single channel level, based on its high conductance and voltage dependence of activation. We also found a population of cells expressing amiloride-sensitive ENaC currents. In summary, our results show that human kidney organoids functionally produce key distal nephron K+ and Na+ channels.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our results show that human kidney organoids express key K+ and Na+ channels that are expressed on the apical membranes of cells in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron, including the large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel, renal outer medullary K+ channel, and epithelial Na+ channel.