Randomised controlled trials of antipsychotics for people with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Despite unclear evidence to support the long-term use of antipsychotics to treat challenging (problem) behaviours in people with autism in the absence of a psychiatric disorder, this practice is common. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of all randomised controlled trials (RCTs) involving antipsychotics for people with autism of all ages, irrespective of the outcomes assessed. We searched seven databases and hand-searched ten relevant journals. Two authors independently screened titles, abstracts and full papers and extracted data using the Cochrane Handbook template. We conducted meta-analyses of outcomes and the rate of adverse events. RESULTS: We included 39 papers based on 21 primary RCTs that recruited 1482 people with autism. No RCT assessed any psychiatric disorder outcome, such as psychoses or bipolar disorder. A meta-analysis of ten placebo-controlled RCTs showed a significantly improved Aberrant Behaviour Checklist-Irritability score in the antipsychotic group with an effect size of -6.45 [95% confidence interval (CI) -8.13 to -4.77] (low certainty). Pooled Clinical Global Impression data on 11 placebo-controlled RCTs showed an overall effect size of 0.84 (95% CI 0.48 to 1.21) (moderate certainty). There was a significantly higher risk of overall adverse effects (p = 0.003) and also weight gain (p < 0.00001), sedation (p < 0.00001) and increased appetite (p = 0.001) in the antipsychotic group. CONCLUSIONS: There is some evidence for risperidone and preliminary evidence for aripiprazole to significantly improve scores on some outcome measures among children with autism but not adults or for any other antipsychotics. There is a definite increased risk of antipsychotic-related different adverse effects.

The UK psychiatrists' experience of rationalising antipsychotics in adults with intellectual disabilities: A qualitative data analysis of free-text questionnaire responses.

BACKGROUND: Overprescribing of off-licence psychotropic medications, particularly antipsychotics, for challenging behaviours in people with intellectual disabilities without a psychiatric disorder is a significant public health concern. In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service England launched an initiative in 2016, 'STopping Over-Medication of People with learning disabilities, autism or both (STOMP)', to address this concern. STOMP is supposed to encourage psychiatrists in the United Kingdom and elsewhere to rationalise psychotropic medication use in people with intellectual disabilities. The current study aims to gather UK psychiatrists' views and experience of implementing the STOMP initiative. METHODS: An online questionnaire was sent to all UK psychiatrists working in the field of intellectual disabilities (estimated 225). Two open-ended questions allowed participants to write comments in response to these questions in the free text boxes. One question asked about the challenges psychiatrists faced locally to implement STOMP, and the other asked for examples of successes and positive experiences from the process. The free text data were analysed using a qualitative method with the help of the NVivo 12 plus software. RESULTS: Eighty-eight (estimated 39%) psychiatrists returned the completed questionnaire. The qualitative analysis of free-text data has shown variation within services in the experience and views of the psychiatrists. In areas with good support for STOMP implementation provided through adequate resources, psychiatrists reported satisfaction in the process with successful antipsychotic rationalisation, better local multi-disciplinary and multi-agency working, and increased awareness of STOMP issues among the stakeholders such as people with intellectual disabilities and their caregivers and multidisciplinary teams, and improved quality of life caused by reduced medication-related adverse events in people with intellectual disabilities. However, where resource utilisation is not optimum, psychiatrists seemed dissatisfied with the process with little success in medication rationalisation. CONCLUSIONS: Whereas some psychiatrists are successful and enthusiastic about rationalising antipsychotics, others still face barriers and challenges. Much work is needed to achieve a uniformly positive outcome throughout the United Kingdom.

Staff perceptions following a training programme about reducing psychotropic medication use in adults with intellectual disability: The need for a realistic professional practice framework.

BACKGROUND: Adults with intellectual disability are at higher risk of being administered psychotropic medications. The UK-developed SPECTROM (Short-term PsychoEducation for Carers To Reduce Over Medication of people with intellectual disabilities) training programme educates disability support workers on psychotropic medications and alternatives to these medications. METHOD: Interviews were conducted with 10 participants who took part in the pilot SPECTROM training programme to elicit their views on the programme and its appropriateness in an Australian context. RESULTS: The key theme was 'Need for a psychotropic medication practice framework'. Four sub-themes were Broad satisfaction with the SPECTROM training programme; Disability support workers acknowledging the limitations of their scope of practice; Empowering training through prescriptive and reflective methods and; Need for future mentoring from Multi-Disciplinary Team members in the application of new knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: Participants felt that whilst they could improve their knowledge and attitudes surrounding psychotropic medication administration for behaviours of concern through SPECTROM training, a national practice framework is needed to execute its goals at scale.

The effectiveness of parent training for children with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analyses.

BACKGROUND: Various parent training interventions have been shown to have some effect on the symptoms of children with autism. We carried out a systematic review and meta-analyses to assess effectiveness of parental training for children with autism on their symptoms and parental stress. METHODS: Four electronic databases, CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE and PsycINFO were searched until March 2020 for relevant literature. Two reviewers independently screened bibliographies using an eligibility checklist and extracted data using a structured proforma. We have also carried out meta-analyses when data were available for pooling. RESULTS: Seventeen papers from 15 studies were included for data analysis. Fifteen papers showed a positive treatment effect when compared with the control group, although not always significant. Meta-analysis based on pooled data from only two studies in each respective intervention, showed small to moderate treatment effects for three interventions, DIR/Floortime, Pivotal Response and Parent focused training respectively. CONCLUSIONS: As in previous systematic reviews there was a mild to moderate treatment effects of three specific types of interventions respectively. However, it was difficult to draw any definitive conclusion about the effectiveness and generalisability of any intervention because of the wide variation in the interventions, control groups, outcome measures, small sample size, small number of studies in meta-analysis, overlap between the intervention and control procedures used in the included studies. There is an urgent need for experts in various international centres to jointly standardise a parent training intervention for children with autism and carry out a large scale RCT to assess its clinical and economic effectiveness. Research Registry Unique Identifying Number: reviewregistry915.

A structured programme to withdraw antipsychotics among adults with intellectual disabilities: The Cornwall experience.

BACKGROUND: Antipsychotic medications are used among 19%-58% of adults with intellectual disabilities to manage challenging behaviour against the NICE guideline recommendations. Studies show that it is possible to completely withdraw antipsychotics in about one third of adults with intellectual disabilities and a dose reduction of 50% or more in another third. METHOD: In Cornwall, over three years the present authors developed a structured pathway to withdraw antipsychotics among adults with intellectual disabilities which involved people with intellectual disabilities and their carers, GPs, community learning disability team members and pharmacists. RESULTS: The present authors managed to withdraw antipsychotics totally among 46.5% (33/71) and reduced over 50% of dosage in another 11.3% (8/71) of adults with intellectual disabilities. At three months follow-up no one required hospital admission or change in placement. CONCLUSION: It is possible to withdraw/reduce antipsychotics in a high proportion of adults with intellectual disabilities if a concerted effort is made involving all stakeholders from the outset.

A prospective, quantitative study of mental health act assessments in England following the 2007 amendments to the 1983 act: did the changes fulfill their promise?

BACKGROUND: In 2008, the Mental Health Act (MHA) 2007 amendments to the MHA 1983 were implemented in England and Wales. The amendments were intended to remove perceived obstacles to the detention of high risk patients with personality disorders (PDs), sexual deviance and learning disabilities (LDs). The AMEND study aimed to test the hypothesis that the implementation of these changes would lead to an increase in numbers or proportions of patients with these conditions who would be assessed and detained under the MHA 2007. METHOD: A prospective, quantitative study of MHA assessments undertaken between July-October 2008-11 at three English sites. Data were collected from local forms used for MHA assessment documentation and patient electronic databases. RESULTS: The total number of assessments in each four month period of data collection varied: 1034 in 2008, 1042 in 2009, 1242 in 2010 and 1010 in 2011 (n = 4415). Of the assessments 65.6% resulted in detention in 2008, 71.3% in 2009, 64.7% in 2010 and 63.5% in 2011. There was no significant change in the odds ratio of detention when comparing the 2008 assessments against the combined 2009, 2010 and 2011 data (OR = 1.025, Fisher's exact Χ 2 p = 0.735). Only patients with LD and 'any other disorder or disability of the mind' were significantly more likely to be assessed under the MHA post implementation (Χ2 = 5.485, P = 0.018; Χ2 = 24.962, P > 0.001 respectively). There was no significant change post implementation in terms of the diagnostic category of detained patients. CONCLUSIONS: In the first three years post implementation, the 2007 Act did not facilitate the compulsory care of patients with PDs, sexual deviance and LDs.

An Exploration of Costs of Community-Based Specialist Health Service Provision for the Management of Aggressive Behaviour in Adults with Intellectual Disabilities.

BACKGROUND: In the UK, people with intellectual disabilities who exhibit aggressive behaviour often receive community-based specialist health services from a community learning disability team (CLDT). Our aim was to estimate costs associated with this provision and to identify predictors of higher costs. METHOD: Costs were estimated for 60 adults with intellectual disabilities and aggressive behaviour who attended specialist psychiatric outpatient clinics in the West Midlands region of the UK, including contact time with members of the CLDT and use of psychotropic medication over a 12-month period. RESULTS: Mean total cost of 12-month service provision was £418 (95% confidence interval [CI] £299-557). Mean total cost of 12-month psychotropic medication was £369 (95% CI £256-492). Amongst individual members of the CLDT, mean costs were highest for psychiatrists (£181) and relatively lower for community nurses (£70) and clinical psychologists (£30), and lowest for physiotherapists (£13). Male sex, presence of expressive verbal communication and presence of epilepsy were independently associated with 12-month medication and service use costs, accounting for 23% of the variance in cost. CONCLUSIONS: It seems that in terms of costs, there is an overreliance on medication and psychiatrists and a relatively lesser reliance on other CLDT members such as community nurses and clinical psychologists for the management of aggressive behaviour in adults with intellectual disabilities within community settings. Health commissioners may wish to explore this relative cost discrepancy further and try to redress the balance where appropriate.

Exploring social cognition in patients with apathy following acquired brain damage.

BACKGROUND: Research on cognition in apathy has largely focused on executive functions. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have investigated the relationship between apathy symptoms and processes involved in social cognition. Apathy symptoms include attenuated emotional behaviour, low social engagement and social withdrawal, all of which may be linked to underlying socio-cognitive deficits. METHODS: We compared patients with brain damage who also had apathy symptoms against similar patients with brain damage but without apathy symptoms. Both patient groups were also compared against normal controls on key socio-cognitive measures involving moral reasoning, social awareness related to making judgements between normative and non-normative behaviour, Theory of Mind processing, and the perception of facial expressions of emotion. We also controlled for the likely effects of executive deficits and depressive symptoms on these comparisons. RESULTS: Our results indicated that patients with apathy were distinctively impaired in making moral reasoning decisions and in judging the social appropriateness of behaviour. Deficits in Theory of Mind and perception of facial expressions of emotion did not distinguish patients with apathy from those without apathy. CONCLUSION: Our findings point to a possible socio-cognitive profile for apathy symptoms and provide initial insights into how socio-cognitive deficits in patients with apathy may affect social functioning.

Validation of the German version of the DSQIID in adults with intellectual disabilities.

BACKGROUND: An observer-rated screening questionnaire for dementia for people with intellectual disabilities (ID), DSQIID, was developed in the UK. So far, the German version has not yet been validated in adults with ID. AIMS/METHODS: We validated a German version of DSQIID (DSQIID-G) among adults with ID attending a German clinic. PROCEDURES/OUTCOMES: DSQIID-G was completed by the caregivers of 104 adults with ID at baseline (T1), 94 at six months (T2) and 83 at 12 months (T3). A Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) was used to determine the total DSQIID-G cutoff score for the best fit between sensitivity and specificity. RESULTS: Sixteen of the 104 participants at T1 (15%) received a diagnosis of dementia. At T1, the scores among the non-dementia group ranged from 0 to 33 (mean: 6.7; SD: 7.65), and the dementia group ranged from 3 to 43 (mean: 22.12; SD: 11.6). The intergroup difference was statistically significant (W: 158; p < .001) (AUC:.89). A total score of 9 provided the best fit between sensitivity (.94) and specificity (.72). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: DSQIID-G total score can discriminate between dementia and non-dementia cases in adults with ID. A lower cutoff score with a higher sensitivity is desirable for a screening instrument.

OPTIMA-ID: development and validation of a medicine optimization tool for older adults with intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND: Older people (i.e. ≥40 years) with intellectual disability have unique medication needs and may experience high levels of potentially inappropriate prescribing. Despite the availability of tools to optimize older adults' prescriptions, there is no comprehensive tool specifically for use in older adults with intellectual disability. We aimed to develop a tool for this purpose: Optimizing Pharmaco-Therapy and Improving Medication for Ageing with Intellectual Disability (OPTIMA-ID). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A draft tool was developed based on literature review and clinical expertise. Focus groups with healthcare professionals and people with intellectual disability were conducted to refine the tool. The tool was presented electronically to an expert panel for Delphi validation. Median level of agreement and 75th percentile values were used to establish if consensus was reached. Criteria were accepted, rejected, revised or removed to develop the final tool. RESULTS: Following two Delphi rounds, consensus on the content of OPTIMA-ID was reached for 67 prescribing criteria, 63 of which were agreed upon after Round 1 and a further 4 criteria accepted after Round 2. CONCLUSIONS: OPTIMA-ID contains 67 criteria that can optimize medications for older people with intellectual disability. Its effectiveness, feasibility and impact on patient outcomes need to be established.

The neural underpinings of simultanagnosia: disconnecting the visuospatial attention network.

Because of our limited processing capacity, different elements of the visual scene compete for the allocation of processing resources. One of the most striking deficits in visual selection is simultanagnosia, a rare neuropsychological condition characterized by impaired spatial awareness of more than one object at time. To decompose the neuroanatomical substrates of the syndrome and to gain insights into the structural and functional organization of visuospatial attention, we performed a systematic evaluation of lesion patterns in a group of simultanagnosic patients compared with patients with either (i) unilateral visuospatial deficits (neglect and/or extinction) or (ii) bilateral posterior lesions without visuospatial deficits, using overlap/subtraction analyses, estimation of lesion volume, and a lesion laterality index. We next used voxel-based morphometry to assess the link between different visuospatial deficits and gray matter and white matter (WM) damage. Lesion overlap/subtraction analyses, lesion laterality index, and voxel-based morphometry measures converged to indicate that bilateral parieto-occipital WM disconnections are both distinctive and necessary to create symptoms associated with simultanagnosia. We also found that bilateral gray matter damage within the middle frontal area (BA 46), cuneus, calacarine, and parieto-occipital fissure as well as right hemisphere parietal lesions within intraparietal and postcentral gyri were associated with simultanagnosia. Further analysis of the WM based on tractography revealed associations with bilateral damage to major pathways within the visuospatial attention network, including the superior longitudinal fasciculus, the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, and the inferior longitudinal fasciculus. We conclude that damage to the parieto-occipital regions and the intraparietal sulcus, together, with bilateral WM disconnections within the visuosptial attention network, contribute to poor visual processing of multiple objects and the loss of processing speed characteristic of simultanagnosia.

Apathy symptoms modulate motivational decision making on the Iowa gambling task.

BACKGROUND: The present study represents an initial attempt to assess the role of apathy in motivated decision making on the Iowa Gambling Task. Clinical descriptions of patients with apathy highlight deficits in the cognitive, emotional and behavioural aspects of goal directed activity, yet standard neurocognitive tests of these measures fail to demonstrate reliable sensitivity to the disorder. Available research suggests the Iowa Gambling Task is a robust test of complex emotional socio-executive processes involved in motivational decision making, which can analogue real-world goal-directed behaviour. METHODS: We ask whether performance on the Iowa Gambling Task can distinguish brain damaged patients with apathy symptoms from 1) brain damaged patients without apathy and 2) neurologically intact controls. Overall, 22 healthy adults and 29 brain damaged patients took part in this study. RESULTS: Brain damaged patients with apathy were distinctively impaired on the Iowa Gambling Task compared to both non-apathetic brain damaged patients and neurologically intact healthy controls. On the other hand, standard measures for the cognitive control of behaviour failed to show this sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrated that the Iowa Gambling Task is sensitive to the presence of apathy symptoms. We discuss these findings in terms of neurocognition deficits in apathy and the related implications for rehabilitation and clinical intervention.

Support staff liaising effectively with family caregivers: Findings from a co-design event and recommendation for a staff training resource.

A high proportion of people with intellectual disabilities (ID) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are prescribed psychotropic medications such as antipsychotics, antidepressants etc., outside their licensed indications, primarily for the management of behaviors that challenge (BtC) in the absence of a psychiatric disorder. Examples of BtC are aggression to people and property or self-injury. BtC could be challenging to manage and may cause the person with ID/ASD and their caregivers distress, breakdown of community placement leading to hospitalization, and restrictive practices such as restraint or inappropriate medication use. Caregivers play a pivotal role in the prescribing process. However, many family caregivers feel that they have not been fully involved in the shared decision-making process about the care planning of their relatives with ID/ASD. To address the public health concern regarding the overuse of off-license prescribing in people with ID/ASD, we have recently developed a training programme called SPECTROM (Short-term Psycho-Education for Carers To Reduce OverMedication of people with intellectual disabilities) for direct care staff who support people with ID/ASD within community settings. We used co-production and a modified Experience-Based Co-Design (EBCD) method to develop SPECTROM, which involved a literature review, four focus groups and a co-design event day involving 26 stakeholders. Recommendations from the co-design event day were analyzed by a Programme Development Group (PDG) consisting of 21 stakeholders who made the final recommendations to the project team regarding the contents and the format of SPECTROM, which was finalized after receiving feedback from further 59 stakeholders. SPECTROM has web-based resources introduced through two core modules in face-to-face workshops/training. A small field test found SPECTROM was effective in improving staff's knowledge of psychotropic medications and attitude toward BtC and people with ID (p < 0.05). One of the 14 STOMP modules is "Effective liaison with family carers and advocates". In this paper, we have presented data from the co-design event day recommendations for this particular module. The group recommended ways to improve collaborative working and effective shared decision-making with family caregivers and people with ID/ASD.

Support staff liaising effectively with professionals for the rational use of psychotropics for behaviours that challenge in adults with intellectual disabilities: Findings from a co-design event.

Experience Based Co-Design (EBCD) and co-production are interdisciplinary collaborative approaches to improve health care services by involving all stakeholders. These approaches capture the experiences of all stakeholders who come in contact with services and use experiences as evidence to promote and implement service changes. The use of psychotropic medications for behaviours that challenge (BtC) in people with intellectual disabilities (ID) is a complex issue because of its off-licence use and use in combination with other medications for physical and psychiatric co-morbidities, which leads to overmedication of people with ID. As support staff plays a pivotal role in the prescribing for people with ID, we have developed a staff training programme, SPECTROM, to help reduce overmedication. A project team developed SPECTROM under the guidance of a Programme Development Group (PDG) consisting of 21 stakeholders. The PDG analysed data from a literature review, four focus groups and a co-design event day involving 26 stakeholders. In this paper, we have presented data based on the findings from the co-design event day, primarily on the issue of support staff effectively liaising with professionals such as doctors, nurses, and other community learning disability team members. In-depth information and recommendations were proposed at the co-design event, which helped develop the draft SPECTROM. The draft was finalised after receiving feedback from 56 stakeholders. Co-production and a modified EBCD can be successfully used to create training interventions and improve health care services. More research should utilise co-production and EBCD and use service users' experiences to develop interventions and improve health care services.

Withdrawing Antipsychotics for Challenging Behaviours in Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: Experiences and Views of Experts by Experience.

People with intellectual disabilities (PwID) are frequently prescribed long-term antipsychotics for behaviours that challenge (BtC) despite the lack of proven effectiveness and the increased risks for side effects of these medications in this population. National and international good clinical practice guidelines recommend deprescribing antipsychotics for BtC, which is often not successful due to environmental and other factors. The involvement of all stakeholders, including PwID, is crucial for deprescribing. However, studies showed that PwID and/or their families are often not involved in decision-making regarding the (de)prescribing of antipsychotics despite their desire to get involved. Moreover, studies on the views of PwID regarding their experiences of withdrawing from antipsychotics are lacking. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the views of PwID by investigating their experiences of discontinuation of long-term prescribed antipsychotics for BtC. A qualitative study was set up. Seven experts by experience with mild intellectual disabilities were interviewed. After six interviews, data saturation was achieved. Interviews were transcribed verbatim. Using phenomenological analysis, themes on lived experiences were extracted. Each consecutive interview was analysed. The four main themes extracted from the interviews were the quality of treatment, knowledge and information about psychotropics and the process of withdrawal, support from the participants' environment and the coping style of the interviewees themselves.

Withdrawing Antipsychotics for Challenging Behaviours in Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: Experiences and Views of Prescribers.

International current best practice recommends the discontinuation of antipsychotics for challenging behaviours in people with intellectual disabilities (ID), due to lack of evidence of efficacy and risks of harmful side-effects. In clinical practice, discontinuation may be difficult. The aim of this study was to gain insight into prescribers' practice by investigating their experiences with the discontinuation of long-term antipsychotics for challenging behaviour. From professionals' associations thirty-four registered ID physicians, psychiatrists and specialist mental healthcare nurses were recruited who completed an online questionnaire in this survey-study. Almost all participants had attempted to deprescribe antipsychotics for their patients with ID. Sixty-five percent of participants achieved complete discontinuation in 0-25% of their patients, but none in over 50%. Barriers were a lack of non-pharmaceutical treatments for challenging behaviours and caregivers' and/or family concern. Seventy percent of participants indicated that their institutions had encouraged implementing their discontinuation policies in line with the new Dutch Act on Involuntary care and a new Dutch multidisciplinary guideline on problem behaviour in adults with ID. Support and facilitation of clinicians from institutions' managers and political and professional bodies may be helpful in further implementation of best practice in the treatment of challenging behaviour in people with ID.

Causes of and Alternatives to Medication for Behaviours That Challenge in People with Intellectual Disabilities: Direct Care Providers' Perspectives.

Behaviours that challenge (BtC), such as aggression and self-injury, are manifested by many people with intellectual disabilities (ID). National and international guidelines recommend non-pharmacological psychosocial intervention before considering medication to address BtC. Support staff play a pivotal role in the prescription process. Using coproduction, we developed a training programme for support staff, called SPECTROM, to give them knowledge and empower them to question inappropriate prescriptions and ask for the discontinuation of medication if appropriate and instead look for ways to help people with ID when they are distressed without relying on medication. We have presented data from two focus groups that we conducted during the development of SPECTROM: one that included support staff, and another that had service managers and trainers. In these focus groups, we explored participants' views on the use of medication to address BtC with a particular emphasis on the causes of and alternatives to medication for BtC. Along with the participants' views, we have also presented how we have addressed these issues in the SPECTROM resources.

Randomised controlled trials of mood stabilisers for people with autism spectrum disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Despite the widespread use of psychotropic medications in people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), there is limited evidence to suggest that psychotropic medications including mood stabilisers are effective in individuals with ASD. AIMS: To carry out a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that assessed the effectiveness of mood stabilisers in people with ASD. METHOD: We searched the following databases: Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, ERIC, DARE, and ClinicalTrials.gov. In addition, we hand-searched 12 relevant journals. We used the Cochrane Risk of Bias and Jadad scores to assess the quality of included RCTs. We carried out a meta-analysis using a random-effects model. RESULTS: We included eight RCTs (four on valproate, two on levetiracetam, and one each on lamotrigine and topiramate) that included a total of 310 people with ASD, primarily children. Outcomes were based on core and associated ASD symptoms including irritability and aggression but not bipolar disorder. Only two small studies (25%) from the same group showed definite superiority over placebo and one over psychoeducation alone. Meta-analysis of pooled data on the Aberrant Behaviour Checklist-irritability, Clinical Global Impression Scale-improvement, and Overt Aggression Scale (OAS)/OAS-modified did not show any significant inter-group difference. The rates of adverse effects did not show any significant inter-group difference. CONCLUSIONS: Given the methodological flaws in the included studies and the contradictory findings, it is difficult to draw any definitive conclusion about the effectiveness of mood stabilisers to treat either ASD core symptoms or associated behaviours. Robust large-scale RCTs are needed in the future to address this issue.PROSPERO registration: CRD42021255467 on 18 May 2021.

Comprehensive Assessment of Triggers for Behaviours of Concern Scale (CATS): Initial Development.

Challenging behaviour displayed by people with intellectual disabilities (ID) can be difficult to manage if caregivers do not understand the reasons for the behaviour. Identifying the contextual variables/triggers for the behaviour is likely to help undertake a functional analysis leading to a person-centred positive behaviour support plan. Currently, a limited number of checklists are available for trigger assessment and none were developed using an interview with the family caregivers. This article describes the development and contents of the comprehensive assessment of triggers for behaviours of concern scale (CATS). CATS was developed in two stages. Stage 1 used a 'bottom-up' approach, in which caregivers of adults with ID who show aggressive behaviour were interviewed to identify the triggers for aggression. In stage two, using a 'top-down' approach, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to gather items from existing trigger checklists. Trigger items from both stages were combined and the duplicates were removed. The final list in CATS consists of 333 contextual triggers categorised under five main domains and 12 subdomains. CATS can be used by caregivers to identify triggers or antecedents of challenging behaviour. Further work is needed to test its psychometric properties, utility, and acceptability.

Association between epilepsy and psychiatric disorders in adults with intellectual disabilities: systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Psychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety, are commonly associated with epilepsy in the general population, but the relationship between psychiatric disorders and epilepsy among adults with intellectual disabilities is unclear. AIMS: To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess whether epilepsy is associated with an increased rate of psychiatric disorders in adults with intellectual disabilities. METHOD: We included literature published between 1985 and 2020 from four databases, and hand-searched six relevant journals. We assessed risk of bias by using SIGN 50 and the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Several meta-analyses were carried out. RESULTS: We included 29 papers involving data on 9594 adults with intellectual disabilities, 3180 of whom had epilepsy and 6414 did not. Of the 11 controlled studies that compared the overall rate of psychiatric disorders between the epilepsy and non-epilepsy groups, seven did not show any significant inter-group difference. Meta-analysis was possible on pooled data from seven controlled studies, which did not show any significant inter-group difference in the overall rate of psychiatric disorders. The rates of psychotic disorders, depressive disorders and anxiety disorders were significantly higher in the non-epilepsy control groups compared with the epilepsy group, with effect sizes of 0.29, 0.47 and 0.58, respectively. Epilepsy-related factors did not show any definite association with psychiatric disorders. CONCLUSIONS: It is difficult to pool data from such heterogeneous studies and draw any definitive conclusion because most studies lacked an appropriately matched control group, which will be required for future studies.