Langerhans cell histiocytosis: NACHO update on progress, chaos, and opportunity on the path to rational cures.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a myeloid neoplastic disorder characterized by lesions with CD1a-positive/Langerin (CD207)-positive histiocytes and inflammatory infiltrate that can cause local tissue damage and systemic inflammation. Clinical presentations range from single lesions with minimal impact to life-threatening disseminated disease. Therapy for systemic LCH has been established through serial trials empirically testing different chemotherapy agents and durations of therapy. However, fewer than 50% of patients who have disseminated disease are cured with the current standard-of-care vinblastine/prednisone/(mercaptopurine), and treatment failure is associated with long-term morbidity, including the risk of LCH-associated neurodegeneration. Historically, the nature of LCH-whether a reactive condition versus a neoplastic/malignant condition-was uncertain. Over the past 15 years, seminal discoveries have broadly defined LCH pathogenesis; specifically, activating mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway mutations (most frequently, BRAFV600E) in myeloid precursors drive lesion formation. LCH therefore is a clonal neoplastic disorder, although secondary inflammatory features contribute to the disease. These paradigm-changing insights offer a promise of rational cures for patients based on individual mutations, clonal reservoirs, and extent of disease. However, the pace of clinical trial development behind lags the kinetics of translational discovery. In this review, the authors discuss the current understanding of LCH biology, clinical characteristics, therapeutic strategies, and opportunities to improve outcomes for every patient through coordinated agent prioritization and clinical trial efforts.

Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia With Torque Teno Mini Virus::RARA Fusion: An Approach to Screening and Diagnosis.

Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) with variant RARA translocation is linked to over 15 partner genes. Recent publications encompassing 6 cases have expanded the spectrum of RARA partners to torque teno mini virus (TTMV). This entity is likely underrecognized due to the lack of clinician and pathologist familiarity, inability to detect the fusion using routine testing modalities, and informatic challenges in its recognition within next-generation sequencing (NGS) data. We describe a clinicopathologic approach and provide the necessary tools to screen and diagnose APL with TTMV::RARA using existing clinical DNA- or RNA-based NGS assays, which led to the identification of 4 cases, all without other known cytogenetic/molecular drivers. One was identified prospectively and 3 retrospectively, including 2 from custom automated screening of multiple data sets (50,257 cases of hematopoietic malignancy, including 4809 acute myeloid leukemia/myeloid sarcoma/APL cases). Two cases presented as myeloid sarcoma, including 1 with multiple relapses after acute myeloid leukemia-type chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Two cases presented as leukemia, had a poor response to induction chemotherapy, but achieved remission upon reinduction (including all-trans retinoic acid in 1 case) and subsequent hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Neoplastic cells demonstrated features of APL including frequent azurophilic granules and dim/absent CD34 and HLA-DR expression. RARA rearrangement was not detected by karyotype or fluorescent in situ hybridization. Custom analysis of NGS fusion panel data identified TTMV::RARA rearrangements and, in the prospectively identified case, facilitated monitoring in sequential bone marrow samples. APL with TTMV::RARA is a rare leukemia with a high rate of treatment failure in described cases. The diagnosis should be considered in leukemias with features of APL that lack detectable RARA fusions and other drivers, and may be confirmed by appropriate NGS tests with custom informatics. Incorporation of all-trans retinoic acid may have a role in treatment but requires accurate recognition of the fusion for appropriate classification as APL.

Acute infusion-related reactions in pediatric patients receiving etoposide at a tertiary cancer center.

INTRODUCTION: Etoposide is a key component of many pediatric chemotherapy regimens for both hematologic and solid tumors. It is well documented that patients receiving etoposide may experience infusion-related reactions. METHODS: In this study, total doses of etoposide and etoposide phosphate were identified, and infusion-related reactions were retrospectively evaluated at a large pediatric oncology ambulatory clinic. The primary outcome was to determine the rate of acute infusion-related reactions to etoposide. A secondary objective was to identify potential risk factors associated with such reactions. RESULTS: Overall, 1463 doses of etoposide were dispensed to 150 unique patients and 15 patients (10%) experienced etoposide infusion-related reactions. Of the 15 patients that experienced etoposide infusion-related reaction, two were successfully able to tolerate subsequent infusions with a slower etoposide infusion rate and pre-medications. The remaining patients changed drug formulation to etoposide phosphate (n = 12) or continued therapy without any formulation of etoposide (n = 1). Patients with classical Hodgkin's lymphoma experienced a higher incidence of infusion-related reactions compared to the overall patient population (30.5% vs. 10%) and made up 73.3% of all infusion-related reactions during the study period. CONCLUSIONS: During the examined study period, 10% of patients experienced an acute infusion-related reaction to etoposide. This review builds on previous literature concluding that additional monitoring may be warranted in patients with classical Hodgkin's lymphoma receiving etoposide.

Emapalumab in Children with Primary Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis.

BACKGROUND: Primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a rare syndrome characterized by immune dysregulation and hyperinflammation. It typically manifests in infancy and is associated with high mortality. METHODS: We investigated the efficacy and safety of emapalumab (a human anti-interferon-γ antibody), administered with dexamethasone, in an open-label, single-group, phase 2-3 study involving patients who had received conventional therapy before enrollment (previously treated patients) and previously untreated patients who were 18 years of age or younger and had primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. The patients could enter a long-term follow-up study until 1 year after allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation or until 1 year after the last dose of emapalumab, if transplantation was not performed. The planned 8-week treatment period could be shortened or extended if needed according to the timing of transplantation. The primary efficacy end point was the overall response, which was assessed in the previously treated patients according to objective clinical and laboratory criteria. RESULTS: At the cutoff date of July 20, 2017, a total of 34 patients (27 previously treated patients and 7 previously untreated patients) had received emapalumab; 26 patients completed the study. A total of 63% of the previously treated patients and 65% of the patients who received an emapalumab infusion had a response; these percentages were significantly higher than the prespecified null hypothesis of 40% (P = 0.02 and P = 0.005, respectively). In the previously treated group, 70% of the patients were able to proceed to transplantation, as were 65% of the patients who received emapalumab. At the last observation, 74% of the previously treated patients and 71% of the patients who received emapalumab were alive. Emapalumab was not associated with any organ toxicity. Severe infections developed in 10 patients during emapalumab treatment. Emapalumab was discontinued in 1 patient because of disseminated histoplasmosis. CONCLUSIONS: Emapalumab was an efficacious targeted therapy for patients with primary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. (Funded by NovImmune and the European Commission; NI-0501-04 and NI-0501-05 ClinicalTrials.gov numbers, NCT01818492 and NCT02069899.).

The added value of skeletal surveys in the initial evaluation of children diagnosed with Langerhans cell histiocytosis in the era of staging 18 F-FDG PET/CT: A retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: Currently, there is no consensus protocol on the initial staging evaluation for Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). Our institutional protocol consists of a skeletal survey and a whole-body positron emission tomography with 2-deoxy-2-[fluorine-18] fluoro-D-glucose integrated with computed tomography (FDG PET/CT) study. The utility of the PET/CT lies in its sensitivity in detecting osseous and extra-osseous lesions, and in determining the baseline metabolic activity of LCH lesions to assess treatment response. However, the added utility of the skeletal survey in staging LCH is unclear. Therefore, this study retrospectively assessed the added diagnostic value of skeletal surveys in patients with baseline PET/CTs for initial staging of LCH. METHODS: We retrospectively searched the medical records of all patients less than or equal to 18 years old at a large children's hospital (May 2013 to September 2021). The inclusion criteria were (a) biopsy-proven diagnosis of LCH and (b) initial staging PET/CT and skeletal survey performed less than or equal to 1 month apart. A blinded pediatric radiologist reviewed the skeletal surveys and another reviewed the PET/CTs in identifying LCH osseous lesions. RESULTS: Our study cohort consisted of 49 children with 86 LCH osseous lesions. In non-extremity locations, PET/CT identified 70/70 (100%) osseous lesions, while skeletal surveys detected 43/70 (61.4%) osseous lesions. In the extremities, PET/CT identified 13/16 (81.3%) osseous lesions, while skeletal surveys detected 15/16 (93.8%) osseous lesions. CONCLUSION: Skeletal surveys increased the detection rate of osseous lesions in the extremities, but added no diagnostic value to the detection of osseous lesions in non-extremity locations. Therefore, we propose to abbreviate the skeletal survey to include only extremity radiographs.

Pediatric leukemia cutis: A case series.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric leukemia cutis (LC) is often difficult to diagnose due to similarity in appearance to other dermatologic diseases. Several case reports and smaller case series have been published in the medical literature, but studies on larger cohorts of children with LC are lacking. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to better characterize the clinical features, course, and prognosis of LC in the pediatric population. METHODS: We performed a retrospective case series of 31 patients diagnosed with LC at Boston Children's Hospital and the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. RESULTS: The number and morphology of LC lesions varied among patients, with the head and lower extremities being the most common sites of involvement. Leukemia cutis presented concomitantly with systemic leukemia in the majority of cases. Most cases of LC arose during initial leukemia episodes, rather than with relapsed leukemia. Acute myeloid leukemia was the subtype most frequently associated with LC, followed by acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Diagnosis altered treatment timing and therapeutic decisions. CONCLUSION: Children most often present concomitantly with LC and systemic leukemia. Since the morphology and distribution of LC varies, physicians must maintain a high index of suspicion for this diagnosis, as the presence of LC may change the management of systemic leukemia.

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in a patient with MonoMAC syndrome/GATA2 haploinsufficiency.

Patients with GATA2 haploinsufficiency have a significant predisposition to developing cytopenias, unique infectious manifestations, and myelodysplastic syndrome/acute myeloid leukemia (MDS/AML). We report a unique case of a patient who presented with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) and was subsequently diagnosed with monocytopenia and mycobacterium avium complex (MonoMAC) syndrome/GATA2 haploinsufficiency. The development of MDS/AML in patients with GATA2 haploinsufficiency is well described, however, the development of ALL has not been reported in the literature. ALL may be associated with GATA2 haploinsufficiency. Clinicians should be attuned to the features of the MonoMAC syndrome in patients with ALL that would prompt additional testing and alter treatment.

Prognostic factors in children with acute myeloid leukaemia and excellent response to remission induction therapy.

Minimal residual disease (MRD) is a strong prognostic factor in children and adolescents with acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) but nearly one-quarter of patients who achieve MRD-negative status still relapse. The adverse prognostic factors among MRD-negative patients remain unknown. We analysed the AML02 study cohort to identify demographic and genetic prognostic factors. Among the presenting features, certain 11q23 abnormalities, such as t(6;11) and t(10;11), acute megakaryoblastic leukaemia without the t(1;22), and age ≥10 years were associated with inferior outcome in patients who had MRD-negative status after either remission induction I or II. By contrast, those with rearrangement of CBF genes had superior outcome. Our study identifies patient populations for whom close post-remission MRD monitoring to detect and treat emerging relapse and adjustment in treatment intensity might be indicated.

Ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic status influence incidence of Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

BACKGROUND: Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a rare disease, and its etiology is not well understood. Population-based studies may contribute to etiologic research by defining incidence patterns. This study was designed to evaluate the descriptive epidemiology of disseminated LCH in the United States, using data from population-based cancer registries. PROCEDURE: We analyzed the incidence and survival of disseminated LCH in children and adolescents (0-19 years) from 18 SEER registries during 2000-2009. Age-standardized incidence rates (ASIR) per million and rate ratios (RR) were calculated by gender, race, ethnicity, age, and socioeconomic variables (crowding, rural/urban, education, and poverty) using the SEER*Stat software 8.0.1. Relative survival (RS) estimates were calculated using Ederer II method. RESULTS: One hundred forty-five cases of disseminated LCH were recorded; ASIR was 0.70/million per year. Lower ASIR was observed for blacks (vs. whites) (RR = 0.41, 95% CI 0.18-0.81), while higher ASIR was noted for Hispanics (vs. non-Hispanics) (RR = 1.63, 95% CI 1.15-2.29). Risk of LCH was higher in crowded counties (RR = 1.84, 95% CI 1.31-2.58) and also in areas with low educational level (RR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.02-2.22). Five-year relative survival was 90.0% (95% CI 83.0-94.2). Important differences in survival were noted according to gender (male: RS = 96.0 vs. female: RS = 83.4%, P = 0.029) and age (<1 year: RS = 78.5, 1-4 years: RS = 95.6%, 5-19 years: RS = 100%, P = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: This population-based study shows significant variations in the incidence of disseminated LCH by race and ethnic group, as well as the influence of socioeconomic factors. These data may provide clues to causation and point toward the need for analytical epidemiologic studies.

Management and Outcome of Patients With Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis and Single-Bone CNS-Risk Lesions: A Multi-Institutional Retrospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Children with Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) and single-bone CNS-risk lesions have been reported to be at increased risk of diabetes insipidus (DI), central nervous system neurodegeneration (CNS-ND), and recurrence of disease. However, it is unknown whether the addition of chemotherapy or radiotherapy changes outcomes in these patients. METHODS: Ten pediatric institutions across North America and Europe contributed data of their patients with LCH and single-bone CNS-risk lesions. Clinical information on age, sex, specific craniofacial site involvement, and intracranial extension at diagnosis, therapy, and disease course was collected for all eligible patients. RESULTS: The final analysis included 93 eligible children who were either treated with systemic therapy (chemotherapy, chemo-radiotherapy, or radiotherapy) or local therapy (biopsy, curettage, and/or intralesional steroids). Fifty-nine patients had systemic and 34 had local therapy. The 5-year event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) were 80 ± 5% and 98 ± 2% in the systemic therapy group versus 85 ± 6% and 95 ± 5% in the local therapy group. There was no statistically significant difference between either group with regard to EFS (P = 0.26) and OS (P = 0.78). On multivariable analysis, there was no significant difference among the two treatment groups after adjusting for site and intracranial soft tissue extension, nor any trend favoring systemic therapy (HR = 2.26, 95% CI = 0.77-6.70; P = 0.14). CONCLUSION: Systemic therapy may not reduce the risk of recurrence or late sequelae in children with LCH and single-bone CNS-risk lesions as compared to local treatment.

Bone marrow engraftment and associated dermatologic sequelae in a three-yr-old after liver transplantation.

We present a case of a three-yr-old child with a history of multisystem Langerhans cell histiocytosis treated with systemic chemotherapy, who developed progressive liver failure and received an orthotopic split liver transplant while continuing on chemotherapy. One month following transplant, he developed acute graft-vs.-host disease of the skin and gastrointestinal tract. Peripheral blood chimerism studies post-transplant demonstrated an increasing predominance of donor lymphocytes and granulocytes. Shortly after, the patient developed vitiligo, and two yr after transplantation, the patient developed skin manifestations of psoriasis. We discuss and review the current literature, which demonstrates that chimerism following liver transplantation is rare and in our patient may be related to his profound immunosuppression around the time of liver transplant as well the development of acute graft-versus-host disease. While autoimmune disease can occur after solid organ and stem cell transplant, our patient developed skin manifestations of autoimmunity after liver transplantation, which is also rarely described.

Pharmacogenomic Score Effectively Personalizes Treatment of Acute Myeloid Leukemia.

PURPOSE: Cytarabine (also known as ara-C) has been the backbone of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) chemotherapy for over five decades. Recent pharmacogenomics-based 10-SNP ara-C score (ACS10) showed low ACS10 (£0) to be associated with poor outcome in AML patients treated with standard chemotherapy. Here, we evaluated ACS10 score in the context of three different induction 1 regimens in pediatric AML patients. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: ACS10 score groups (low,£0 or high,>0) were evaluated for association with event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) by three randomized treatment arms in patients treated on the AML02 (NCT00136084) and AML08 (NCT00703820) clinical trials: AML02 low-dose cytarabine (LDAC arm, n=91), AML02+AML08 high-dose cytarabine (HDAC arm, n=194) and AML08 clofarabine+ cytarabine (Clo/Ara-C arm, n=105) induction 1 regimens. RESULTS: Within the low-ACS10 score (£0) group, significantly improved EFS and OS was observed among patients treated with Clo/Ara-C as compared to LDAC (EFS, HR=0.45, 95% CI, 0.23-0.88, p=0.020; OS, HR=0.44, 95% CI, 0.19-0.99, p=0.048). In contrast, within the high-ACS10 score group (score >0) augmentation with Clo/Ara-C was not favorable as compared to LDAC (Clo/Ara-C vs. LDAC, EFS, HR=1.95, 95% CI: 1.05-3.63, p=0.035; OS HR=2.17, 95%CI: 1.05-4.49; p=0.037). Personalization models predicted 9% improvement in outcome in ACS10 score-based tailored induction (Clo/Ara-C for low and LDAC for high-ACS10 groups) as compared to non-personalized approaches (p<0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that tailoring induction regimens using ACS10 scores can significantly improve outcome in patients with AML. Given the SNPs are germline, preemptive genotyping can accelerate matching the most effective remission induction regimen.

Pharmacogenomics, Race, and Treatment Outcome in Pediatric Acute Myeloid Leukemia.

Importance: Disparities in outcomes exist between Black and White patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML), with Black patients experiencing poorer prognosis compared with their White counterparts. Objective: To assess whether varying intensity of induction therapy to treat pediatric AML is associated with reduced disparities in treatment outcome by race. Design, Setting, and Participants: A comparative effectiveness analysis was conducted of 86 Black and 359 White patients with newly diagnosed AML who were enrolled in the AML02 trial from 2002 to 2008 or the AML08 trial from 2008 to 2017. Statistical analysis was conducted from July 2023 through January 2024. Interventions: Patients in AML02 were randomly assigned to receive standard low-dose cytarabine-based induction therapy or augmented high-dose cytarabine-based induction therapy, whereas patients in AML08 received high-dose cytarabine-based therapy. Main Outcomes and Measures: Cytarabine pharmacogenomic 10-single-nucleotide variant (ACS10) scores were evaluated for association with outcome according to race and treatment arm. Results: This analysis included 86 Black patients (mean [SD] age, 8.8 [6.5] years; 54 boys [62.8%]; mean [SD] leukocyte count, 52 600 [74 000] cells/µL) and 359 White patients (mean [SD] age, 9.1 [6.2] years; 189 boys [52.6%]; mean [SD] leukocyte count, 54 500 [91 800] cells/µL); 70 individuals with other or unknown racial and ethnic backgrounds were not included. Among all patients without core binding factor AML who received standard induction therapy, Black patients had significantly worse outcomes compared with White patients (5-year event-free survival rate, 25% [95% CI, 9%-67%] compared with 56% [95% CI, 46%-70%]; P = .03). By contrast, among all patients who received augmented induction therapy, there were no differences in outcome according to race (5-year event-free survival rate, Black patients, 50% [95% CI, 38%-67%]; White patients, 48% [95% CI, 42%-55%]; P = .78). Among patients who received standard induction therapy, those with low ACS10 scores had a significantly worse 5-year event-free survival rate compared with those with high scores (42.4% [95% CI, 25.6%-59.3%] and 70.0% [95% CI, 56.6%-83.1%]; P = .004); however, among patients who received augmented induction therapy, there were no differences in 5-year event-free survival rates according to ACS10 score (low score, 60.6% [95% CI, 50.9%-70.2%] and high score, 54.8% [95% CI, 47.1%-62.5%]; P = .43). Conclusions and Relevance: In this comparative effectiveness study of pediatric patients with AML treated in 2 consecutive clinical trials, Black patients had worse outcomes compared with White patients after treatment with standard induction therapy, but this disparity was eliminated by treatment with augmented induction therapy. When accounting for ACS10 scores, no outcome disparities were seen between Black and White patients. Our results suggest that using pharmacogenomics parameters to tailor induction regimens for both Black and White patients may narrow the racial disparity gap in patients with AML.

Recent advances in the understanding of Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a proliferative disease of cells that share phenotypic characteristics with the primary antigen presenting cells of the epidermis. Its clinical manifestations are highly variable, extending from very benign forms to a disseminated, aggressive disease that causes significant mortality. Although many of the fundamental pathogenetic features of LCH have been enigmatic, recent advances have led to a much clearer understanding of the disease. In particular, careful molecular analyses of mouse models and human LCH samples suggest that LCH's cell of origin may not be the epidermal LC itself but a myeloid-derived precursor. Advanced genomic technologies have revealed the presence of activating, somatic BRAF mutations in the majority of patient specimens. Together, these observations have produced a new picture of LCH as a myeloid neoplasm. These advances are likely to have profound implications for the use of targeted therapeutics in LCH.

Recurrent BRAF mutations in Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) has a broad spectrum of clinical behaviors; some cases are self-limited, whereas others involve multiple organs and cause significant mortality. Although Langerhans cells in LCH are clonal, their benign morphology and their lack (to date) of reported recurrent genomic abnormalities have suggested that LCH may not be a neoplasm. Here, using 2 orthogonal technologies for detecting cancer-associated mutations in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded material, we identified the oncogenic BRAF V600E mutation in 35 of 61 archived specimens (57%). TP53 and MET mutations were also observed in one sample each. BRAF V600E tended to appear in younger patients but was not associated with disease site or stage. Langerhans cells stained for phospho-mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (phospho-MEK) and phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (phospho-ERK) regardless of mutation status. High prevalence, recurrent BRAF mutations in LCH indicate that it is a neoplastic disease that may respond to RAF pathway inhibitors.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis as an etiology of bone marrow failure.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a syndrome of multiorgan system dysfunction that is caused by hypercytokinemia and persistent activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and macrophages. A nearly ubiquitous finding and a diagnostic criterion of HLH is the presence of cytopenias in ≥ 2 cell lines. The mechanism of cytopenias in HLH is multifactorial but appears to be predominantly driven by suppression of hematopoiesis by pro-inflammatory cytokines and, to some extent, by consumptive hemophagocytosis. Recognition of cytopenias as a manifestation of HLH is an important consideration for patients with bone marrow failure of unclear etiology.

An Evidence-Based Guideline Improves Outcomes for Patients With Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis and Macrophage Activation Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To compare clinical outcomes in children with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) who were managed before and after implementation of an evidence-based guideline (EBG). METHODS: A management algorithm for MAS-HLH was developed at our institution based on literature review, expert opinion, and consensus building across multiple pediatric subspecialties. An electronic medical record search retrospectively identified hospitalized patients with MAS-HLH in the pre-EBG (October 15, 2015, to December 4, 2017) and post-EBG (January 1, 2018, to January 21, 2020) time periods. Predetermined outcome metrics were evaluated in the 2 cohorts. RESULTS: After the EBG launch, 57 children were identified by house staff as potential patients with MAS-HLH, and rheumatology was consulted for management. Ultimately, 17 patients were diagnosed with MAS-HLH by the treating team. Of these, 59% met HLH 2004 criteria, and 94% met 2016 classification criteria for MAS complicating systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis. There was a statistically significant reduction in mortality from 50% before implementation of the EBG to 6% in the post-EBG cohort (P = 0.02). There was a significant improvement in time to 50% reduction in C-reactive protein level in the post-EBG vs pre-EBG cohorts (log-rank P < 0.01). There were trends toward faster time to MAS-HLH diagnosis, faster initiation of immunosuppressive therapy, shorter length of hospital stay, and more rapid normalization of MAS-HLH-related biomarkers in the patients post-EBG. CONCLUSION: While the observed improvements may be partially attributed to advances in treatment of MAS-HLH that have accumulated over time, this analysis also suggests that a multidisciplinary treatment pathway for MAS-HLH contributed meaningfully to favorable patient outcomes.