Speeding of oxygen uptake kinetics is not different following low-intensity blood-flow-restricted and high-intensity interval training.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Can interval blood-flow-restricted (BFR) cycling training, undertaken at a low intensity, promote a similar adaptation to oxygen uptake ( V̇O2 ) kinetics to high-intensity interval training? What is the main finding and its importance? Speeding of pulmonary V̇O2 on-kinetics in healthy young subjects was not different between low-intensity interval BFR training and traditional high-intensity interval training. Given that very low workloads are well tolerated during BFR cycle training and speed V̇O2 on-kinetics, this training method could be used when high mechanical loads are contraindicated. ABSTRACT: Low-intensity blood-flow-restricted (BFR) endurance training is effective to increase aerobic capacity. Whether it speeds pulmonary oxygen uptake ( V̇O2p ), CO2 output ( V̇CO2p ) and ventilatory ( V̇Ep ) kinetics has not been examined. We hypothesized that low-intensity BFR training would reduce the phase 2 time constant (τp ) of V̇O2p , V̇CO2p and V̇Ep by a similar magnitude to traditional high-intensity interval training (HIT). Low-intensity interval training with BFR served as a control. Twenty-four participants (25 ± 6 years old; maximal V̇O2 46 ± 6 ml kg-1  min-1 ) were assigned to one of the following: low-intensity BFR interval training (BFR; n = 8); low-intensity interval training without BFR (LOW; n = 7); or high-intensity interval training without BFR (HIT; n = 9). Training was 12 sessions of two sets of five to eight × 2 min cycling and 1 min resting intervals. LOW and BFR were conducted at 30% of peak incremental power (Ppeak ), and HIT was at ∼103% Ppeak . For BFR, cuffs were inflated on both thighs (140-200 mmHg) during exercise and deflated during rest intervals. Six moderate-intensity step transitions (30% Ppeak ) were averaged for analysis of pulmonary on-kinetics. Both BFR (pre- versus post-training τp  = 18.3 ± 3.2 versus 14.5 ± 3.4 s; effect size = 1.14) and HIT (τp  = 20.3 ± 4.0 versus 13.1 ± 2.9 s; effect size = 1.75) reduced the V̇O2p τp (P < 0.05). As expected, there was no change in LOW ( V̇O2p τp  = 17.9 ± 6.2 versus 17.7 ± 4.3 s; P = 0.9). The kinetics of V̇CO2p and V̇Ep were speeded only after HIT (38.5 ± 10.6%, P < 0.001 and 31.2 ± 24.7%, P = 0.004, respectively). Both HIT and low-intensity BFR training were effective in speeding moderate-intensity V̇O2p kinetics. These data support the findings of others that low-intensity cycling training with BFR increases muscle oxidative capacity.

Comparison of Different Methods for the Swimming Aerobic Capacity Evaluation.

Pelarigo, JG, Fernandes, RJ, Ribeiro, J, Denadai, BS, Greco, CC, and Vilas-Boas, JP. Comparison of different methods for the swimming aerobic capacity evaluation. J Strength Cond Res 32(12): 3551-3560, 2018-This study compared velocity (v) and bioenergetical factors using different methods applied for the swimming aerobic capacity evaluation. Ten elite female swimmers (17.6 ± 1.9 years, 1.70 ± 0.05 m, and 61.3 ± 5.8 kg) performed an intermittent incremental velocity protocol until voluntary exhaustion to determine the v associated with the individual anaerobic threshold (IAnT), ventilatory threshold (VT), heart rate threshold (HRT), lactate threshold fixed in 3.5 mmol·L (LT3.5), and maximal oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2max). Two-to-three 30-minute submaximal constant tests for the v assessment at maximal lactate steady state (MLSS). The v, gas exchange, heart rate, and blood lactate concentration variables were monitored in all tests. The values of all parameters at the v corresponding to MLSS, IAnT, VT, and HRT were similar (p ≤ 0.05), with high agreement (r > 0.400), except for carbon dioxide (V[Combining Dot Above]CO2) that was higher for MLSS compared with VT (p ≤ 0.05). However, the v at LT3.5 was higher when compared with other methods for v and bioenergetical factors. It is suggested that IAnT, VT, and HRT methods are better predictors of the intensity corresponding to the commonly accepted gold-standard method (i.e., MLSS) for the aerobic capacity evaluation compared with LT3.5.

Can the Critical Power Model Explain the Increased Peak Velocity/Power During Incremental Test After Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training?

Denadai, BS and Greco, CC. Can the critical power model explain the increased peak velocity/power during incremental test after concurrent strength and endurance training? J Strength Cond Res 31(8): 2319-2323, 2017-The highest exercise intensity that can be maintained at the end of a ramp or step incremental test (i.e., velocity or work rate at V[Combining Dot Above]O2max - Vpeak/Wpeak) can be used for endurance performance prediction and individualization of aerobic training. The interindividual variability in Vpeak/Wpeak has been attributed to exercise economy, anaerobic capacity, and neuromuscular capability, alongside the major determinant of aerobic capacity. Interestingly, findings after concurrent strength and endurance training performed by endurance athletes have challenged the actual contribution of these variables. The critical power model usually derived from the performance of constant-work rate exercise can also explain tolerance to a ramp incremental exercise so that, Vpeak/Wpeak can be predicted accurately. However, there is not yet discussion of possible concomitant improvements in the parameters of the critical power model and Vpeak/Wpeak after concurrent training and whether they can be associated with and therefore depend on different neuromuscular adaptations. Therefore, this brief review presents some evidence that the critical power model could explain the improvement of Vpeak/Wpeak and should be used to monitor aerobic performance enhancement after different concurrent strength- and endurance-training designs.

Reliability of cardiorespiratory parameters during cycling exercise performed at the severe domain in active individuals.

The purpose of this study was to determine the test-retest reliability of cardiorespiratory parameters during cycling exercise performed at severe domain in active individuals. Thirteen active males (24.5 ± 4.5 years) performed the following tests: (a) an incremental test to determine V[Combining Dot Above]O2max and the intensity associated with VO2max (IVO2max); and (b) 4 repetitions of square-wave transitions from rest to a power corresponding to 95% IVO2max to determine the parameters of VO2 kinetics and time to exhaustion (Tlim). Participants performed only 2 transitions on any given day. The interval between the 2 experimental sessions was 48-72 hours. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and typical error as the coefficient of variation were used to assess reliability. Although the 2 measures of Tlim were moderately related (ICC = 0.78; p < 0.01), Tlim from the second session (545.2 ± 103.1 seconds) was significantly higher than that of the first (492.5 ± 100.9 seconds; p = 0.02). Moderate to high reliability (ICC = 0.76-0.93) for the amplitudes of the VO2 kinetics responses was found. Poor reliability, however, was found for time constants and time delays of the VO2 kinetics responses. Thus, in nonfamiliarized individuals, Tlim shows a relatively low within-subject coefficient of variation. However, the second score in a series of 2 Tlim tests may be significantly greater than the first. We have also demonstrated that the amplitudes of the V[Combining Dot Above]O2 response have significantly moderate to high reliability. The time-based parameters, however, present an important day-to-day intraindividual variation. Therefore, several transitions are recommended to monitoring changes in an individual over any time frame.

How narrow is the spectrum of submaximal speeds in swimming?

The purpose of this study was to identify the boundary of submaximal speed zones (i.e., exercise intensity domains) between maximal aerobic speed (S-400) and lactate threshold (LT) in swimming. A 400-m all-out test, a 7 × 200 m incremental step test, and two to four 30-minute submaximal tests were performed by 12 male endurance swimmers (age = 24.5 ± 9.6 years; body mass = 71.3 ± 9.8 kg) to determine S-400, speed corresponding to LT, and maximal lactate steady state (MLSS). S-400 was 1.30 ± 0.09 m·s (400 m-5:08 minutes:seconds). The speed at LT (1.08 ± 0.02 m·s; 83.1 ± 2.2 %S-400) was lower than the speed at MLSS (1.14 ± 0.02 m·s; 87.5 ± 1.9 %S-400). Maximal lactate steady state occurred at 26 ± 10% of the difference between the speed at LT and S-400. Mean blood lactate values at the speeds corresponding to LT and MLSS were 2.45 ± 1.13 mmol·L and 4.30 ± 1.32 mmol·L, respectively. The present findings demonstrate that the range of intensity zones between LT and MLSS (i.e., heavy domain) and between MLSS and S-400 (i.e., severe domain) are very narrow in swimming with LT occurring at 83% S-400 in trained swimmers. Precision and sensitivity of the measurement of aerobic indexes (i.e., LT and MLSS) should be considered when conducting exercise training and testing in swimming.

Resistance training for explosive and maximal strength: effects on early and late rate of force development.

The aim of the present study was to verify whether strength training designed to improve explosive and maximal strength would influence rate of force development (RFD). Nine men participated in a 6-week knee extensors resistance training program and 9 matched subjects participated as controls. Throughout the training sessions, subjects were instructed to perform isometric knee extension as fast and forcefully as possible, achieving at least 90% maximal voluntary contraction as quickly as possible, hold it for 5 s, and relax. Fifteen seconds separated each repetition (6-10), and 2 min separated each set (3). Pre- and post-training measurements were maximal isometric knee extensor (MVC), RFD, and RFD relative to MVC (i.e., %MVC·s(-1)) in different time-epochs varying from 10 to 250 ms from the contraction onset. The MVC (Nm) increased by 19% (275.8 ± 64.9 vs. 329.8 ± 60.4, p < 0.001) after training. In addition, RFD (Nm·s(-1)) increased by 22-28% at time epochs up to 20 ms from the contraction onset (0-10 ms = 1679. 1 ± 597.1 vs. 2159.2 ± 475.2, p < 0.001; 0-20 ms = 1958.79 ± 640.3 vs. 2398.4 ± 479.6, p < 0. 01), with no changes verified in later time epochs. However, no training effects on RFD were found for the training group when RFD was normalized to MVC. No changes were found in the control group. In conclusion, very early and late RFD responded differently to a short period of resistance training for explosive and maximal strength. This time-specific RFD adaptation highlight that resistance training programs should consider the specific neuromuscular demands of each sport. Key PointsThe time-specific RFD adaptation evoked by resistance training highlight that the method of analyzing RFD is essential for the interpretation of results.Confirming previous data, maximal contractile RFD and maximal force can be differently influenced by resistance training. Thus, the resistance training programs should consider the specific neuromuscular demands of each sport.In active non-strength trained individuals, a short-term resistance training program designed to increase both explosive and maximal strength seems to reduce the adaptive response (i.e. increased RFDMAX) evoked by training with an intended ballistic effort (i.e. high-RFD contraction).

Acute physiological responses to eccentric cycling: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Eccentric cycling (ECCCYC) has attracted considerable interest due to its potential applicability for exercise treatment/training of patients with poor exercise tolerance as well as healthy and trained individuals. Conversely, little is known about the acute physiological responses to this exercise modality, thus challenging its proper prescription. This study aimed to provide precise estimates of the acute physiological responses to ECCCYC in comparison to traditional concentric cycling (CONCYC). EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: Searches were performed until November 2021 using the PubMed, Embase, and ScienceDirect databases. Studies that examined individuals' cardiorespiratory, metabolic, and perceptual responses to ECCCYC and CONCYC sessions were included. Bayesian multilevel meta-analysis models were used to estimate the population mean difference between acute physiological responses from ECCCYC and CONCYC bouts. Twenty-one studies were included in this review. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: The meta-analyses showed that ECCCYC induced lower cardiorespiratory (i.e., V̇O2, V̇E, and HR), metabolic (i.e., [BLa]), and perceptual (i.e., RPE) responses than CONCYC performed at the same absolute power output, while greater cardiovascular strain (i.e., greater increases in HR, Q, MAP, [norepinephrine], and lower SV) was detected when compared to CONCYC performed at the same V̇O2. CONCLUSIONS: The prescription of ECCCYC based on workloads used in the CONCYC sessions may be considered safe and, therefore, feasible for the rehabilitation of individuals with poor exercise tolerance. However, the prescription of ECCCYC based on the V̇O2 obtained during CONCYC sessions should be conducted with caution, especially in clinical settings, since there is a high probability of additional cardiovascular overload in this condition.

The rate of force development obtained at early contraction phase is not influenced by active static stretching.

The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of active static stretching on the maximal isometric muscle strength (maximal voluntary contraction [MVC]) and rate of force development (RFD) determined within time intervals of 30, 50, 100, and 200 milliseconds relative to the onset of muscle contraction. Fifteen men (aged 21.3 ± 2.4 years) were submitted on different days to the following tests: (a) familiarization session to the isokinetic dynamometer; (b) 2 maximal isometric contractions for knee extensors in the isokinetic dynamometer to determine MVC and RFD (control); and (c) 2 active static stretching exercises for the dominant leg extensors (10 × 30 seconds for each exercise with a 20-second rest interval between bouts). After stretching, the isokinetic test was repeated (poststretching). Conditions 2 and 3 were performed in random order. The RFD was considered as the mean slope of the moment-time curve at time intervals of 0-30, 0-50, 0-100; 0-150; and 0200 milliseconds relative to the onset of muscle contraction. The MVC was reduced after stretching (285 ± 59 vs. 271 ± 56 N · m, p < 0.01). The RFD at intervals of 0-30, 0-50, and 0-100 milliseconds was unchanged after stretching (p > 0.05). However, the RFD measured at intervals of 0-150 and 0-200 milliseconds was significantly lower after stretching (p < 0.01). It can be concluded that explosive muscular actions of a very short duration (<100 milliseconds) seem less affected by active static stretching when compared with actions using maximal muscle strength.

Rapid hamstrings/quadriceps strength capacity in professional soccer players with different conventional isokinetic muscle strength ratios.

Muscle strength imbalance can be an important factor in hamstrings muscle strain. A hamstrings/quadriceps (H/Q) strength ratio based on concentric peak torque values (Hcon:Qcon) has traditionally been used to describe the potential for knee-joint destabilization. Because certain standard actions in soccer are explosive, the analysis of the H/Q strength ratio based on the rate of torque development (Hrtd:Qrtd) might also be useful in the evaluation of joint stability. The objective of this study was to compare the Hrtd:Qrtd between professional soccer players with heterogeneous values of Hcon:Qcon. Thirty-nine professional soccer players took part in the following procedures on different days: 1) Familiarization session with the isokinetic dynamometer, and 2) Two maximal isometric actions and five maximal concentric actions at 60°·s(-1) for hamstrings (H) and quadriceps (Q). Participants were ranked according to their Hcon:Qcon ratio. The median third was excluded to form a high torque group (HTG), and a low torque group (LTG). Peak isometric (H) and concentric (H and Q) torques and rate of torque development (H) were significantly greater in the HTG group. Similarly, Hcon:Qcon (0.68 ± 0.02 vs. 0.52 ± 0.03) and Hrtd:Qrtd (0.54 ± 0.12 vs. 0.43 ± 0.16) were significantly greater in the HTG group than in the LTG group. There was no significant correlation between Hcon:Qcon and Hrtd:Qrtd. It can be concluded that Hcon:Qcon and Hrtd:Qrtd are determined, but not fully defined, by shared putative physiological mechanisms. Thus, the physiologic and clinical significance of Hcon:Qcon and Hrtd:Qrtd to an athlete's individual evaluation might be different. Key pointsSoccer players with high (0.66-0.70) and low (0.50-0.54) conventional concentric hamstrings:quadriceps ratios (Hcon:Qcon) tend to demonstrate similar profiles (i.e., high and low, respectively) in their rate of the torque development H/Q ratio (Hrtd:Qrtd).The lack of a significant relationship between Hcon:Qcon and Hrtd:Qrtd suggests that these ratios are determined, but not fully defined, by shared putative physiological mechanisms.Preseason screening programs that monitor hamstrings:quadriceps ratios should recognize that the physiologic and clinical significance of Hcon:Qcon and Hrfd:Qrfd to an athlete's individual evaluation might be different.

A comparison of the internal and external load demands imposed on professional soccer referees in FIFA's current model of physical test in relation to games.

BACKGROUND: Based on the need to investigate the demands imposed on referees in the current model of physical evaluation and during professional games, this study's objective was to compare these demands in the physical test versus the games. METHODS: Thus, it evaluated the heart rate, distance covered, time, and speed of all 14 referees in the physical test and during Brazil's first division state championship games using a Global Positioning System enabled heart rate monitor. RESULTS: The maximum heart rate (HRmax) and maximum speed were higher in the physical test (183.86±12.79 bpm) and (26.80±0.96 km/h), respectively, than in the games (170.25±17.71 bpm) (P=0.008) and (24.27±1.68 km/h) (P=0.001), respectively. In the HRmax zone ≥90 and ≤100%, the time and percentage distance were greater in the physical test (47.87±16.60% and 58.57±22.78%), respectively, than in the games (17.82±18.29% and 18.84±18.92%, respectively; P<0.001). However, in the speed zone <13 km/h, the time and the percentage distance were longer in the game (93.73±1.26% and 86.13±2.31%), respectively, than in the physical test (68.73±12.31% and 39.65±9.74%, respectively; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Thus, it is concluded that the professional referees perform at greater intensities during the physical test than in the games. In contrast, the demands for intensities corresponding to aerobic metabolism are greater in games or equal to those in physical testing, depending on the intensity reference.

Improvements in metabolic and neuromuscular fitness after 12-week bodypump® training.

Greco, CC, Oliveira, AS, Pereira, MP, Figueira, TR, Ruas, VD, Gonçalves, M, and Denadai, BS. Improvements in metabolic and neuromuscular fitness after 12-week Bodypump® training. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3422-3431, 2011-The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a 12-week group fitness training program (Bodypump®) on anthropometry, muscle strength, and aerobic fitness. Nineteen women (21.4 ± 2.0 years old) were randomly assigned to a training group (n = 9) and to a control group (n = 10). We show that this training program improved the 1 repetition maximum squats by 33.1% (p < 0.001) and the maximal isometric voluntary contraction (MVC) by 13.6% (p < 0.05). Additionally, decreases in knee extensor electromyographic activity during the MVC (30%, p < 0.01) and during the squats (15%, p < 0.05) and lunges of a simulated Bodypump® session were observed after the training. Concomitantly, blood lactate and heart rate after squats of a simulated Bodypump® session were decreased by 33 and 7% (p < 0.05), respectively. Body mass, body fat, and the running velocity at the onset of blood lactate accumulation did not change significantly in response to this training program. We conclude that Bodypump® training improves muscular strength and decreases metabolic stress during lower limb exercises. However, no significant improvements in running aerobic fitness nor in body mass and body fat were observed. Practitioners of Bodypump® training may benefit from the increased muscular strength and the decreased muscular fatigability during exercise tasks whose motor patterns are related to those involved in this training program. However, these functional gains do not seem to be transferable into running aerobic fitness.

Maximal lactate steady-state independent of recovery period during intermittent protocol.

Barbosa, LF, de Souza, MR, Corrêa Caritá, RA, Caputo, F, Denadai, BS, and Greco, CC. Maximal lactate steady-state independent of recovery period during intermittent protocol. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3385-3390, 2011-The purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of the measurement time for blood lactate concentration ([La]) determination on [La] (maximal lactate steady state [MLSS]) and workload (MLSS during intermittent protocols [MLSSwi]) at maximal lactate steady state determined using intermittent protocols. Nineteen trained male cyclists were divided into 2 groups, for the determination of MLSSwi using passive (VO(2)max = 58.1 ± 3.5 ml·kg·min; N = 9) or active recovery (VO(2)max = 60.3 ± 9.0 ml·kg·min; N = 10). They performed the following tests, in different days, on a cycle ergometer: (a) Incremental test until exhaustion to determine (VO(2)max and (b) 30-minute intermittent constant-workload tests (7 × 4 and 1 × 2 minutes, with 2-minute recovery) to determine MLSSwi and MLSS. Each group performed the intermittent tests with passive or active recovery. The MLSSwi was defined as the highest workload at which [La] increased by no more than 1 mmol·L between minutes 10 and 30 (T1) or minutes 14 and 44 (T2) of the protocol. The MLSS (Passive-T1: 5.89 ± 1.41 vs. T2: 5.61 ± 1.78 mmol·L) and MLSSwi (Passive-T1: 294.5 ± 31.8 vs. T2: 294.7 ± 32.2 W; Active-T1: 304.6 ± 23.0 vs. T2: 300.5 ± 23.9 W) were similar for both criteria. However, MLSS was lower in T2 (4.91 ± 1.91 mmol·L) when compared with in T1 (5.62 ± 1.83 mmol·L) using active recovery. We can conclude that the MLSSwi (passive and active conditions) was unchanged whether recovery periods were considered (T1) or not (T2) for the interpretation of [La] kinetics. In contrast, MLSS was lowered when considering the active recovery periods (T2). Thus, shorter intermittent protocols (i.e., T1) to determine MLSSwi may optimize time of the aerobic capacity evaluation of well-trained cyclists.

Decreased running economy is not associated with decreased force production capacity following downhill running in untrained, young men.

The present study investigated the relationships between changes in running economy (RE) and indirect muscle damage markers following downhill running (DHR) to test the hypothesis that decreased RE after DHR would be associated with decreases in muscle function. Forty-five young men ran downhill (-15%) for 30 min at the velocity corresponding to 70% of their peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak). Oxygen uptake (VO2) and other parameters possibly associated with RE (blood lactate concentration, perceived exertion, stride length and frequency) were measured during 5-minute level running at the velocity corresponding to 80%VO2peak before, immediately after and 1-3 days after DHR. Knee extensor maximal voluntary contraction torque (MVC), rate of torque development, vertical jump performance, muscle soreness and serum creatine kinase activity were assessed at the same time points. The values of the dependent variables were compared among time points by one-way ANOVAs followed by Bonferroni post-hoc tests when appropriate. Pearson's correlation tests were used to examine relationships between changes in VO2 (RE parameter) and changes in muscle damage parameters. VO2 during the level run increased (p < 0.05) immediately after DHR (18.3 ± 4.6%) and sustained until 2 days post-DHR (11.7 ± 4.2%). MVC decreased (p < 0.05) immediately (-21.8 ± 6.1%) to 3 days (-13.6 ± 5.9%) post-DHR, and muscle soreness developed 1-3 days post-DHR. The magnitude of changes in VO2 did not significantly (p < 0.05) correlate with the changes in muscle damage makers (r = -0.02-0.13) nor stride length (r = -0.05) and frequency (r = -0.05). The absence of correlation between the changes in VO2 and MVC suggests that strength loss was not a key factor affecting RE.

Consumption of An Anthocyanin-Rich Antioxidant Juice Accelerates Recovery of Running Economy and Indirect Markers of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage Following Downhill Running.

This study examined the effects of anthocyanin-rich antioxidant juice (AJ) on the recovery of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) and the running economy (RE) following downhill running (DHR). Thirty healthy young men were randomly divided into two blinded groups and consumed either AJ or placebo (PLA) for nine days (240 mL twice-a-day). On day 5, the participants from both groups ran downhill (-15%) for 30 min at 70% of their maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) speeds. The changes in RE (oxygen uptake (VO2) and perceived effort (PE) during 5-min runs at 80%VO2max) and EIMD (isometric peak torque (IPT), muscle soreness (SOR) and serum creatine kinase activity (CK)) were compared over time and between the groups on the 4 days following DHR. VO2 and PE increased (p < 0.05) immediately following DHR for both groups and remained elevated for PLA until 48h post-DHR while fully recovering 24 h post-DHR for AJ. SOR was greater (p < 0.05) for PLA throughout the study. CK increased for both groups and was greater (p < 0.05) for PLA at 96 h post-DHR. IPT decreased for both groups but recovered faster for AJ (72 h) compared to PLA (no full recovery). AJ accelerated recovery of RE and EIMD and should be used in specific contexts, but not chronically.

Influence of exercise mode and maximal lactate-steady-state concentration on the validity of OBLA to predict maximal lactate-steady-state in active individuals.

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of exercise mode on the validity of onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA-3.5-mM fixed blood lactate concentration) to predict the work-rate at maximal lactate steady state (MLSS(work-rate)). Eleven recreationally active males (21.3+/-2.9 years, 72.8+/-6.7kg, 1.78+/-0.1m) performed randomly incremental tests to determine OBLA (stage duration of 3min), and 2 to 4 constants work-rate exercise tests to directly determine maximal lactate steady state parameters on a cycle-ergometer and treadmill. For both exercise modes, the OBLA was significantly correlated to MLSS(work-rate), (cycling: r=0.81 p=0.002; running: r=0.94, p<0.001). OBLA (156.2+/-41.3W) was lower than MLSS(work-rate) (179.6+/-26.4W) during cycling exercise (p=0.007). However, for running exercise, there was no difference between OBLA (3.2+/-0.6ms(-1)) and MLSS(work-rate) (3.1+/-0.4ms(-1)). The difference between OBLA and MLSS(work-rate) on the cycle-ergometer (r=0.86; p<0.001) and treadmill (r=0.64; p=0.048) was significantly related to the specific MLSS. We can conclude that the validity of OBLA on predicting MLSS(work-rate) is dependent on exercise mode and that its disagreement is related to individual variations in MLSS.

Aerobic Fitness Level Typical of Elite Athletes is not Associated With Even Faster VO2 Kinetics During Cycling Exercise.

The aim of this study was to address the question if the VO2 kinetics is further improved as the aerobic training status increases from trained to elite level athletes. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), work-rate associated to VO2max (IVO2max) and VO2 kinetics of moderate (Mod) and maximal exercise (Max) were determined in fifty- five subjects. Then, they were assigned into three groups: low (LF), intermediate (IF) and high (HF) aerobic fitness level. In average, the VO2max of LF, IF and HF groups were, respectively, 36.0 ± 3.1, 51.1 ± 4.5 and 68.1 ± 3.9 ml·kg·min(-1) (p ≤ 0.05 among each other). VO2 kinetics mean response time of both exercise intensities were significantly faster (p ≤ 0.05) in HF (Mod, 27.5 ± 5.5 s; Max, 32.6 ± 8.3 s) and IF (Mod, 25.0 ± 3.1 s; Max, 42.6 ± 10.4 s) when compared to LF (Mod, 35.7 ± 7.9 s; Max: 57.8 ± 17.8 s). We can conclude that VO2 kinetics is improved as the fitness level is increased from low to intermediate but not further improved as the aerobic fitness level increases from intermediate to high. Key pointsCurrently, it is reasonable to believe that the rate-limiting step of VO2 kinetics depends on exercise intensity.The well known physiological adaptations induced by endurance training are likely the most extreme means to overcome rate-limiting steps determining VO2 kinetics across exercise intensities.However, exercise adaptation leading individuals to the high-end of aerobic fitness level range (VO2max > 65 ml.kg.min-1) is not able to further improve VO2 kinetics during both, moderate and maximal intensity exercise.

Isometric pre-conditioning blunts exercise-induced muscle damage but does not attenuate changes in running economy following downhill running.

Running economy (RE) is impaired following unaccustomed eccentric-biased exercises that induce muscle damage. It is also known that muscle damage is reduced when maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVIC) are performed at a long muscle length 2-4 days prior to maximal eccentric exercise with the same muscle, a phenomenon that can be described as isometric pre-conditioning (IPC). We tested the hypothesis that IPC could attenuate muscle damage and changes in RE following downhill running. Thirty untrained men were randomly assigned into experimental or control groups and ran downhill on a treadmill (-15%) for 30 min. Participants in the experimental group completed 10 MVIC in a leg press machine two days prior to downhill running, while participants in the control group did not perform IPC. The magnitude of changes in muscle soreness determined 48 h after downhill running was greater for the control group (122 ±â€¯28 mm) than for the experimental group (92 ±â€¯38 mm). Isometric peak torque recovered faster in the experimental group compared with the control group (3 days vs. no full recovery, respectively). No significant effect of IPC was found for countermovement jump height, serum creatine kinase activity or any parameters associated with RE. These results supported the hypothesis that IPC attenuates changes in markers of muscle damage. The hypothesis that IPC attenuates changes in RE was not supported by our data. It appears that the mechanisms involved in changes in markers of muscle damage and parameters associated with RE following downhill running are not completely shared.

Effects of gender on stroke rates, critical speed and velocity of a 30-min swim in young swimmers.

Our objective was to analyze the effect of gender on the relationship between stroke rates corresponding to critical speed (SRCS) and maximal speed of 30 min (SRS30) in young swimmers. Twenty two males (GM1) (Age = 15.4 ± 2.1 yr., Body mass = 63.7 ± 12.9 kg, Stature = 1.73 ± 0.09 m) and fourteen female (GF) swimmers (Age = 15.1 ± 1.6 yr., Body mass = 58.3 ± 8.8 kg, Stature = 1.65 ± 0.06 m) were studied. A subset of males (GM2) was matched to the GF by their velocity for a 30 min swim (S30). The critical speed (CS) was determined through the slope of the linear regression line between the distances (200 and 400 m) and participant's respective times. CS was significantly higher than S30 in males (GM1 - 1.25 and 1.16 and GM2 - 1.21 and 1.12 m·s(-1)) and females (GF - 1.15 and 1.11 m·s(-1)). There was no significant difference between SRCS and SRS30 in males (GM1 - 34.16 and 32.32 and GM2 - 34.67 and 32.46 cycle·s(-1), respectively) and females (GF - 34.18 and 33.67 cycle·s(-1), respectively). There was a significant correlation between CS and S30 (GM1 - r = 0.89, GF - r = 0.94 and GM2 - r = 0.90) and between SRCS and SRS30 (GM1 - r = 0.89, GF - r = 0.80 and GM2 - r = 0.88). Thus, the relationship between SRCS and SRS30 is not influenced by gender, in swimmers with similar and different aerobic capacity levels. Key pointsThe main finding of this study was that the relationship between SRCS and SRS30, which is not dependent on gender, in swimmers with similar and different aerobic capacity levels.In swimmers who had different S30 values, CS was higher than S30 in boys and girls, and CS and S30 were higher in boys than girls, but SRCS and SRS30 were similar between genders.In swimmers who had similar S30 values, CS was higher than S30 in boys and girls. However, boys still presented higher values of CS than girls. SRCS was higher than SRS30 in boys, but these variables were similar in girls. SRCS and SRS30 were similar between genders.Girls presented lower submaximal blood lactate levels than boys.

Endurance Performance during Severe-Intensity Intermittent Cycling: Effect of Exercise Duration and Recovery Type.

Slow component of oxygen uptake (VO2SC) kinetics and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) attainment seem to influence endurance performance during constant-work rate exercise (CWR) performed within the severe intensity domain. In this study, it was hypothesized that delaying the attainment of VO2max by reducing the rates at which VO2 increases with time (VO2SC kinetics) would improve the endurance performance during severe-intensity intermittent exercise performed with different work:recovery duration and recovery type in active individuals. After the estimation of the parameters of the VO2SC kinetics during CWR exercise, 18 males were divided into two groups (Passive and Active recovery) and performed at different days, two intermittent exercises to exhaustion (at 95% IVO2max, with work: recovery ratio of 2:1) with the duration of the repetitions calculated from the onset of the exercise to the beginning of the VO2SC (Short) or to the half duration of the VO2SC (Long). The active recovery was performed at 50% IVO2max. The endurance performance during intermittent exercises for the Passive (Short = 1523 ± 411; Long = 984 ± 260 s) and Active (Short = 902 ± 239; Long = 886 ± 254 s) groups was improved compared with CWR condition (Passive = 540 ± 116; Active = 489 ± 84 s). For Passive group, the endurance performance was significantly higher for Short than Long condition. However, no significant difference between Short and Long conditions was found for Active group. Additionally, the endurance performance during Short condition was higher for Passive than Active group. The VO2SC kinetics was significantly increased for CWR (Passive = 0.16 ± 0.04; Active = 0.16 ± 0.04 L.min-2) compared with Short (Passive = 0.01 ± 0.01; Active = 0.03 ± 0.04 L.min-2) and Long (Passive = 0.02 ± 0.01; Active = 0.01 ± 0.01 L.min-2) intermittent exercise conditions. No significant difference was found among the intermittent exercises. It can be concluded that the endurance performance is negatively influenced by active recovery only during shorter high-intensity intermittent exercise. Moreover, the improvement in endurance performance seems not be explained by differences in the VO2SC kinetics, since its values were similar among all intermittent exercise conditions.