Structure of coagulation factor VIII bound to a patient-derived anti-C1 domain antibody inhibitor.

The development of pathogenic antibody inhibitors against coagulation factor VIII (FVIII) occurs in ∼30% of patients with congenital hemophilia A receiving FVIII replacement therapy, as well as in all cases of acquired hemophilia A. KM33 is an anti-C1 domain antibody inhibitor previously isolated from a patient with severe hemophilia A. In addition to potently blocking FVIII binding to von Willebrand factor and phospholipid surfaces, KM33 disrupts FVIII binding to lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1), which drives FVIII hepatic clearance and antigen presentation in dendritic cells. Here, we report on the structure of FVIII bound to NB33, a recombinant derivative of KM33, via single-particle cryo-electron microscopy. Structural analysis revealed that the NB33 epitope localizes to the FVIII residues R2090-S2094 and I2158-R2159, which constitute membrane-binding loops in the C1 domain. Further analysis revealed that multiple FVIII lysine and arginine residues, previously shown to mediate binding to LRP1, dock onto an acidic cleft at the NB33 variable domain interface, thus blocking a putative LRP1 binding site. Together, these results demonstrate a novel mechanism of FVIII inhibition by a patient-derived antibody inhibitor and provide structural evidence for engineering FVIII with reduced LRP1-mediated clearance.

Nonhuman glycans can regulate anti-factor VIII antibody formation in mice.

Recombinant factor VIII (FVIII) products represent a life-saving intervention for patients with hemophilia A. However, patients can develop antibodies against FVIII that prevent its function and directly increase morbidity and mortality. The development of anti-FVIII antibodies varies depending on the type of recombinant product used, with previous studies suggesting that second-generation baby hamster kidney (BHK)-derived FVIII products display greater immunogenicity than do third-generation Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-derived FVIII products. However, the underlying mechanisms responsible for these differences remain incompletely understood. Our results demonstrate that BHK cells express higher levels of the nonhuman carbohydrate α1-3 galactose (αGal) than do CHO cells, suggesting that αGal incorporation onto FVIII may result in anti-αGal antibody recognition that could positively influence the development of anti-FVIII antibodies. Consistent with this, BHK-derived FVIII exhibits increased levels of αGal, which corresponds to increased reactivity with anti-αGal antibodies. Infusion of BHK-derived, but not CHO-derived, FVIII into αGal-knockout mice, which spontaneously generate anti-αGal antibodies, results in significantly higher anti-FVIII antibody formation, suggesting that the increased levels of αGal on BHK-derived FVIII can influence immunogenicity. These results suggest that posttranslational modifications of recombinant FVIII products with nonhuman carbohydrates may influence the development of anti-FVIII antibodies.

Structure of blood coagulation factor VIII in complex with an anti-C1 domain pathogenic antibody inhibitor.

Antibody inhibitor development in hemophilia A represents the most significant complication resulting from factor VIII (fVIII) replacement therapy. Recent studies have demonstrated that epitopes present in the C1 domain contribute to a pathogenic inhibitor response. In this study, we report the structure of a group A anti-C1 domain inhibitor, termed 2A9, in complex with a B domain-deleted, bioengineered fVIII construct (ET3i). The 2A9 epitope forms direct contacts to the C1 domain at 3 different surface loops consisting of Lys2065-Trp2070, Arg2150-Tyr2156, and Lys2110-Trp2112. Additional contacts are observed between 2A9 and the A3 domain, including the Phe1743-Tyr1748 loop and the N-linked glycosylation at Asn1810. Most of the C1 domain loops in the 2A9 epitope also represent a putative interface between fVIII and von Willebrand factor. Lastly, the C2 domain in the ET3i:2A9 complex adopts a large, novel conformational change, translocating outward from the structure of fVIII by 20 Å. This study reports the first structure of an anti-C1 domain antibody inhibitor and the first fVIII:inhibitor complex with a therapeutically active fVIII construct. Further structural understanding of fVIII immunogenicity may result in the development of more effective and safe fVIII replacement therapies.

Thrombopoietin-based CAR-T cells demonstrate in vitro and in vivo cytotoxicity to MPL positive acute myelogenous leukemia and hematopoietic stem cells.

While targeting CD19+ hematologic malignancies with CAR T cell therapy using single chain variable fragments (scFv) has been highly successful, novel strategies for applying CAR T cell therapy with other tumor types are necessary. In the current study, CAR T cells were designed using a ligand binding domain instead of an scFv to target stem-like leukemia cells. Thrombopoietin (TPO), the natural ligand to the myeloproliferative leukemia protein (MPL) receptor, was used as the antigen binding domain to engage MPL expressed on hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) and erythropoietic and megakaryocytic acute myeloid leukemias (AML). TPO-CAR T cells were tested in vitro against AML cell lines with varied MPL expression to test specificity. TPO-CAR T cells were specifically activating and cytotoxic against MPL+ leukemia cell lines. Though the TPO-CAR T cells did not extend survival in vivo, it successfully cleared the MPL+ fraction of leukemia cells. As expected, we also show the TPO-CAR is cytotoxic against MPL expressing bone marrow compartment in AML xenograft models. The data collected demonstrate preclinical potential of TPO-CAR T cells for stem-like leukemia through assessment of targeted killing of MPL+ cells and may facilitate subsequent HSC transplant under reduced intensity conditioning regimens.

Bortezomib enhances cytotoxicity of ex vivo-expanded gamma delta T cells against acute myeloid leukemia and T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Engagement between the natural killer group 2, member D (NKG2D) receptor and its ligands is one of the main mechanisms used by immune cells to target stressed cells for cell death. NKG2D ligands are known markers of cellular stress and are often upregulated on tumor cells. Certain drugs can further increase NKG2D ligand levels, thereby making tumor cells more susceptible to immune cell detection and destruction. However, the effectiveness of this approach appears to be limited with drug treatment alone, possibly due to immune dysregulation in the setting of malignancies. We hypothesized that a more effective approach would be a combination of NKG2D ligand-inducing drugs, such as the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, and ex vivo-expanded peripheral blood γδ T cells (i.e., Vγ9Vδ2 T cells). Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a high-risk hematologic malignancy, and treatment has shown limited benefit with the addition of bortezomib to standard chemotherapy regimens. Two AML cells lines, Nomo-1 and Kasumi-1, were treated with increasing concentrations of bortezomib, and changes in NKG2D ligand expression were measured. Bortezomib treatment significantly increased expression of the NKG2D ligand UL16 binding protein (ULBP) 2/5/6 in both cell lines. Vγ9Vδ2 T cells were expanded and isolated from peripheral blood of healthy donors to generate a final cellular product with a mean of 96% CD3+/γδ T-cell receptor-positive cells. Combination treatment of the AML cell lines with γδ T cells and bortezomib resulted in significantly greater cytotoxicity than γδ T cells alone, even at lower effector-to-target ratios. Based on the positive results against AML and the generalizable mechanism of this combination approach, it was also tested against T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL), another high-risk leukemia. Similarly, bortezomib increased ULBP 2/5/6 expression in T-ALL cell lines, Jurkat and MOLT-4 and improved the cytotoxicity of γδ T cells against each line. Collectively, these results show that bortezomib enhances γδ T-cell-mediated killing of both AML and T-ALL cells in part through increased NKG2D ligand-receptor interaction. Furthermore, proof-of-concept for the combination of ex vivo-expanded γδ T cells with stress ligand-inducing drugs as a therapeutic platform for high-risk leukemias is demonstrated.

Human serum albumin and chromatin condensation rescue ex vivo expanded γδ T cells from the effects of cryopreservation.

Clinical applications of gamma delta (γδ) T cells have advanced from initial interest in expanding γδ T cells in vivo to the development of a manufacturing process for the ex vivo expansion. To develop an "off-the-shelf" allogeneic γδ T cell product, the cell manufacturing process must be optimized to include cryopreservation. It is known that cryopreservation can dramatically reduce viability of primary cells and other cell types after thawing, although the exact effects of cryopreservation on γδ T cell health and functionality have not yet been characterized. Our aim was to characterize the effects of a freeze/thaw cycle on γδ T cells and to develop an optimized protocol for cryopreservation. γδ T cells were expanded under serum-free conditions, using a good manufacturing practice (GMP) compliant protocol developed by our lab. We observed that cryopreservation reduced cell survival and increased the percentage of apoptotic cells, two measures that could not be improved through the use of 5 GMP compliant freezing media. The choice of thawing medium, specifically human albumin (HSA), improved γδ T cell viability and in addition, chromatin condensation prior to freezing increased cell viability after thawing, which could not be further improved with the use of a general caspase inhibitor. Finally, we found that cryopreserved cells had depolarized mitochondrial membranes and reduced cytotoxicity when tested against a range of leukemia cell lines. These studies provide a detailed analysis of the effects of cryopreservation on γδ T cells and provide methods for improving viability in the post-thaw period.

Microfluidic Transduction Harnesses Mass Transport Principles to Enhance Gene Transfer Efficiency.

Ex vivo gene therapy using lentiviral vectors (LVs) is a proven approach to treat and potentially cure many hematologic disorders and malignancies but remains stymied by cumbersome, cost-prohibitive, and scale-limited production processes that cannot meet the demands of current clinical protocols for widespread clinical utilization. However, limitations in LV manufacture coupled with inefficient transduction protocols requiring significant excess amounts of vector currently limit widespread implementation. Herein, we describe a microfluidic, mass transport-based approach that overcomes the diffusion limitations of current transduction platforms to enhance LV gene transfer kinetics and efficiency. This novel ex vivo LV transduction platform is flexible in design, easy to use, scalable, and compatible with standard cell transduction reagents and LV preparations. Using hematopoietic cell lines, primary human T cells, primary hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) of both murine (Sca-1+) and human (CD34+) origin, microfluidic transduction using clinically processed LVs occurs up to 5-fold faster and requires as little as one-twentieth of LV. As an in vivo validation of the microfluidic-based transduction technology, HSPC gene therapy was performed in hemophilia A mice using limiting amounts of LV. Compared to the standard static well-based transduction protocols, only animals transplanted with microfluidic-transduced cells displayed clotting levels restored to normal.

Bioengineering and serum free expansion of blood-derived γδ T cells.

BACKGROUND AIMS: Cellular immunotherapy relies on several highly variable patient-specific parameters, such as (i) cell number before and after expansion, (ii) targeting of cells to tumors, (iii) cell survival and function after infusion, and (iv) on- and off-target adverse events. Cellular approaches such as the specific expansion of γδ T cells as opposed to αß T cells are being pursued. γδ T cells are reasonable candidates for immunotherapy because they (i) possess intrinsic anti-tumorigenicity, (ii) require no priming, (iii) direct tumor killing via recognition of stress-responsive ligands, and (iv), as we now show, can be expanded to clinical cell doses in current Good Manufacturing Practice serum-free media (SFM). METHODS: γδ T-cell expansion was evaluated in several SFMs. Additionally, the expanded γδ T cells were evaluated for their transduction efficiency using lentiviral vectors (LV). RESULTS: Of the SFM cultures, robust expansion was only observed in OpTmizer supplemented with high-dose interleukin-2. γδ T-cell percentages and numbers were sufficient for clinical use. Using cells from several donors, transduction efficiencies ranged from 13 to 33%, which is similar to transduction levels observed using αß T cells with similar multiplicity of infection. DISCUSSION: An optimized method of γδT-cell expansion and transduction was developed that can be tested in early-phase clinical trials. With appropriate elimination of the αßT cell-component, the absence of MHC-restriction affords the opportunity for use in the allogeneic setting with limited risk of graft versus host disease. Finally, the use of SFM provides clinically safer, widely applicable and potentially more efficacious cellular immunotherapy.

Structural basis for inhibition of coagulation factor VIII reveals a shared antigenic hotspot on the C1 domain.

BACKGROUND: Hemophilia A arises from dysfunctional or deficient coagulation factor (F)VIII and leads to inefficient fibrin clot formation and uncontrolled bleeding events. The development of antibody inhibitors is a clinical complication in hemophilia A patients receiving FVIII replacement therapy. LE2E9 is an anti-C1 domain inhibitor previously isolated from a mild/moderate hemophilia A patient and disrupts FVIII interactions with von Willebrand factor and FIXa, though the intermolecular contacts that underpin LE2E9-mediated FVIII neutralization are undefined. OBJECTIVES: To determine the structure of the complex between FVIII and LE2E9 and characterize its mechanism of inhibition. METHODS: FVIII was bound to the antigen binding fragment (Fab) of NB2E9, a recombinant construct of LE2E9, and its structure was determined by cryogenic electron microscopy. RESULTS: This report communicates the 3.46 Å structure of FVIII bound to NB2E9, with its epitope comprising FVIII residues S2040 to Y2043, K2065 to W2070, and R2150 to H2155. Structural analysis reveals that the LE2E9 epitope overlaps with portions of the epitope for 2A9, a murine-derived inhibitor, suggesting that these residues represent a shared antigenic region on the C1 domain between FVIII-/- mice and hemophilia A patients. Furthermore, the FVIII:NB2E9 structure elucidates the orientation of the LE2E9 glycan, illustrating how the glycan sterically blocks interactions between the FVIII C1 domain and the von Willebrand factor D' domain. A putative model of the FVIIIa:FIXa complex suggests potential clashing between the NB2E9 glycan and FIXa light chain. CONCLUSION: These results describe an antigenic "hotspot" on the FVIII C1 domain and provide a structural basis for engineering FVIII replacement therapeutics with reduced antigenicity.

Humanization and functional characterization of enhanced coagulation factor IX variants identified through ancestral sequence reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Laboratory resurrection of ancient coagulation factor (F) IX variants generated through ancestral sequence reconstruction led to the discovery of a FIX variant, designated An96, which possesses enhanced specific activity independent of and additive to that provided by human p.Arg384Lys, referred to as FIX-Padua. OBJECTIVES: The goal of the current study was to identify the amino acid substitution(s) responsible for the enhanced activity of An96 and create a humanized An96 FIX transgene for gene therapy application. METHODS: Reductionist screening approaches, including domain swapping and scanning residue substitution, were used and guided by one-stage FIX activity assays. In vitro characterization of top candidates included recombinant high-purity preparation, specific activity determination, and enzyme kinetic analysis. Final candidates were packaged into adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors and delivered to hemophilia B mice. RESULTS: Five of 42 total amino acid substitutions in An96 appear sufficient to retain the enhanced activity of An96 in an otherwise human FIX variant. Additional substitution of the Padua variant further increased the specific activity 5-fold. This candidate, designated ET9, demonstrated 51-fold greater specific activity than hFIX. AAV2/8-ET9 treated hemophilia B mice produced plasma FIX activities equivalent to those observed previously for AAV2/8-An96-Padua, which were 10-fold higher than AAV2/8-hFIX-Padua. CONCLUSION: Starting from computationally inferred ancient FIX sequences, novel amino acid substitutions conferring activity enhancement were identified and translated into an AAV-FIX gene therapy cassette demonstrating high potency. This ancestral sequence reconstruction discovery and sequence mapping refinement approach represents a promising platform for broader protein drug and gene therapy candidate optimization.

Directing the migration of serum-free, ex vivo-expanded Vγ9Vδ2 T cells.

Vγ9Vδ2 T cells represent a promising cancer therapy platform because the implementation of allogenic, off-the-shelf product candidates is possible. However, intravenous administration of human Vγ9Vδ2 T cells manufactured under good manufacturing practice (GMP)-compliant, serum-free conditions are not tested easily in most mouse models, mainly because they lack the ability to migrate from the blood to tissues or tumors. We demonstrate that these T cells do not migrate from the circulation to the mouse bone marrow (BM), the site of many malignancies. Thus, there is a need to better characterize human γδ T-cell migration in vivo and develop strategies to direct these cells to in vivo sites of therapeutic interest. To better understand the migration of these cells and possibly influence their migration, NSG mice were conditioned with agents to clear BM cellular compartments, i.e., busulfan or total body irradiation (TBI), or promote T-cell migration to inflamed BM, i.e., incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA), prior to administering γδ T cells. Conditioning with TBI, unlike busulfan or IFA, increases the percentage and number of γδ T cells accumulating in the mouse BM, and cells in the peripheral blood (PB) and BM display identical surface protein profiles. To better understand the mechanism by which cells migrate to the BM, mice were conditioned with TBI and administered γδ T cells or tracker-stained red blood cells. The mechanism by which γδ T cells enter the BM after radiation is passive migration from the circulation, not homing. We tested if these ex vivo-expanded cells can migrate based on chemokine expression patterns and showed that it is possible to initiate homing by utilizing highly expressed chemokine receptors on the expanded γδ T cells. γδ T cells highly express CCR2, which provides chemokine attraction to C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2)-expressing cells. IFNγ-primed mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) (γMSCs) express CCL2, and we developed in vitro and in vivo models to test γδ T-cell homing to CCL2-expressing cells. Using an established neuroblastoma NSG mouse model, we show that intratumorally-injected γMSCs increase the homing of γδ T cells to this tumor. These studies provide insight into the migration of serum-free, ex vivo-expanded Vγ9Vδ2 T cells in NSG mice, which is critical to understanding the fundamental properties of these cells.

Factor VIII A3 domain substitution N1922S results in hemophilia A due to domain-specific misfolding and hyposecretion of functional protein.

A point mutation leading to amino acid substitution N1922S in the A3 domain of factor VIII (fVIII) results in moderate to severe hemophilia A. A heterologous expression system comparing N1922S-fVIII and wild-type fVIII (wt-fVIII) demonstrated similar specific coagulant activities but poor secretion of N1922S-fVIII. Immunocytochemical analysis revealed that intracellular levels of N1922S-fVIII were similar to those of wt-fVIII. The specific activity of intracellular N1922S-fVIII was 10% of that of wt-fVIII, indicating the presence of large amounts of a nonfunctional N1922S-fVIII-folding intermediate. wt-fVIII colocalized with both endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- and Golgi-resident proteins. In contrast, N1922S-fVIII colocalized only with ER-resident proteins, indicating a block in transit from the ER to the Golgi. A panel of conformation-dependent monoclonal antibodies was used to determine native or nonnative folding of N1922S-fVIII. Intracellular N1922S-fVIII but not secreted N1922S-fVIII displayed abnormal folding in the A3 and C1 domains, indicating that the A1, A2, and C2 domains fold independently into antigenically intact tertiary structures, but that folding is stalled in the mutant A3 and its contiguous C1 domain. In summary, the N1922S substitution results in poor secretion of a functional protein, and the domain-specific defect in folding and intracellular trafficking of N1922S-fVIII is a novel mechanism for secretion defects leading to hemophilia A.

Enhancing the effectiveness of γδ T cells by mRNA transfection of chimeric antigen receptors or bispecific T cell engagers.

Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) utilizing γδ T cells is becoming a promising option for the treatment of cancer, because it offers an off-the-shelf allogeneic product that is safe, potent, and clinically effective. Approaches to engineer or enhance immune-competent cells for ACT, like expression of chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) or combination treatments with bispecific T cell engagers, have improved the specificity and cytotoxic potential of ACTs and have shown great promise in preclinical and clinical settings. Here, we test whether electroporation of γδ T cells with CAR or secreted bispecific T cell engager (sBite) mRNA is an effective approach to improve the cytotoxicity of γδ T cells. Using a CD19-specific CAR, approximately 60% of γδ T cells are modified after mRNA electroporation and these cells show potent anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo against two CD19-positive cancer cell lines. In addition, expression and secretion of a CD19 sBite enhances γδ T cell cytotoxicity, both in vitro and in vivo, and promotes killing of target cells by modified and unmodified γδ T cells. Taken together, we show that transient transfection of γδ T cells with CAR or sBite mRNA by electroporation can be an effective treatment platform as a cancer therapeutic.

Ligand-based targeting of c-kit using engineered γδ T cells as a strategy for treating acute myeloid leukemia.

The application of immunotherapies such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T therapy or bi-specific T cell engager (BiTE) therapy to manage myeloid malignancies has proven more challenging than for B-cell malignancies. This is attributed to a shortage of leukemia-specific cell-surface antigens that distinguish healthy from malignant myeloid populations, and the inability to manage myeloid depletion unlike B-cell aplasia. Therefore, the development of targeted therapeutics for myeloid malignancies, such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML), requires new approaches. Herein, we developed a ligand-based CAR and secreted bi-specific T cell engager (sBite) to target c-kit using its cognate ligand, stem cell factor (SCF). c-kit is highly expressed on AML blasts and correlates with resistance to chemotherapy and poor prognosis, making it an ideal candidate for which to develop targeted therapeutics. We utilize γδ T cells as a cytotoxic alternative to αß T cells and a transient transfection system as both a safety precaution and switch to remove alloreactive modified cells that may hinder successful transplant. Additionally, the use of γδ T cells permits its use as an allogeneic, off-the-shelf therapeutic. To this end, we show mSCF CAR- and hSCF sBite-modified γδ T cells are proficient in killing c-kit+ AML cell lines and sca-1+ murine bone marrow cells in vitro. In vivo, hSCF sBite-modified γδ T cells moderately extend survival of NSG mice engrafted with disseminated AML, but therapeutic efficacy is limited by lack of γδ T-cell homing to murine bone marrow. Together, these data demonstrate preclinical efficacy and support further investigation of SCF-based γδ T-cell therapeutics for the treatment of myeloid malignancies.

Transplanting FVIII/ET3-secreting cells in fetal sheep increases FVIII levels long-term without inducing immunity or toxicity.

Hemophilia A is the most common X-linked bleeding disorder affecting more than half-a-million individuals worldwide. Persons with severe hemophilia A have coagulation FVIII levels <1% and experience spontaneous debilitating and life-threatening bleeds. Advances in hemophilia A therapeutics have significantly improved health outcomes, but development of FVIII inhibitory antibodies and breakthrough bleeds during therapy significantly increase patient morbidity and mortality. Here we use sheep fetuses at the human equivalent of 16-18 gestational weeks, and we show that prenatal transplantation of human placental cells (107-108/kg) bioengineered to produce an optimized FVIII protein, results in considerable elevation in plasma FVIII levels that persists for >3 years post-treatment. Cells engraft in major organs, and none of the recipients mount immune responses to either the cells or the FVIII they produce. Thus, these studies attest to the feasibility, immunologic advantage, and safety of treating hemophilia A prior to birth.

Identification and targeting of protein tyrosine kinase 7 (PTK7) as an immunotherapy candidate for neuroblastoma.

GD2-targeting immunotherapies have improved survival in children with neuroblastoma, yet on-target, off-tumor toxicities can occur and a subset of patients cease to respond. The majority of neuroblastoma patients who receive immunotherapy have been previously treated with cytotoxic chemotherapy, making it paramount to identify neuroblastoma-specific antigens that remain stable throughout standard treatment. Cell surface glycoproteomics performed on human-derived neuroblastoma tumors in mice following chemotherapy treatment identified protein tyrosine kinase 7 (PTK7) to be abundantly expressed. Furthermore, PTK7 shows minimal expression on pediatric-specific normal tissues. We developed an anti-PTK7 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) and find PTK7 CAR T cells specifically target and kill PTK7-expressing neuroblastoma in vitro. In vivo, human/murine binding PTK7 CAR T cells regress aggressive neuroblastoma metastatic mouse models and prolong survival with no toxicity. Together, these data demonstrate preclinical efficacy and tolerability for targeting PTK7 and support ongoing investigations to optimize PTK7-targeting CAR T cells for neuroblastoma.

Enhanced biosynthesis of coagulation factor VIII through diminished engagement of the unfolded protein response.

Human and porcine coagulation factor VIII (fVIII) display a biosynthetic efficiency differential that is being exploited for the development of new protein and gene transfer-based therapies for hemophilia A. The cellular and/or molecular mechanism(s) responsible for this phenomenon have yet to be uncovered, although it has been temporally localized to post-translational biosynthetic steps. The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a cellular adaptation to structurally distinct (e.g. misfolded) or excess protein in the endoplasmic reticulum and is known to be induced by heterologous expression of recombinant human fVIII. Therefore, it is plausible that the biosynthetic differential between human and porcine fVIII results from differential UPR activation. In the current study, UPR induction was examined in the context of ongoing fVIII expression. UPR activation was greater during human fVIII expression when compared with porcine fVIII expression as determined by ER response element (ERSE)-luciferase reporter activity, X-box-binding protein 1 (XBP1) splicing, and immunoglobulin-binding protein (BiP) up-regulation. Immunofluorescence microscopy of fVIII expressing cells revealed that human fVIII was notably absent in the Golgi apparatus, confirming that endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi transport is rate-limiting. In contrast, a significant proportion of porcine fVIII was localized to the Golgi indicating efficient transit through the secretory pathway. Overexpression of BiP, an integral UPR protein, reduced the secretion of human fVIII by 50%, but had no effect on porcine fVIII biosynthesis. In contrast, expression of BiP shRNA increased human fVIII expression levels. The current data support the model of differential engagement of UPR by human and porcine fVIII as a non-traditional mechanism for regulation of gene product biosynthesis.

Lentiviral vector platform for production of bioengineered recombinant coagulation factor VIII.

Patients with hemophilia A present with spontaneous and sometimes life-threatening bleeding episodes that are treated using blood coagulation factor VIII (fVIII) replacement products. Although effective, these products have limited availability worldwide due to supply limitations and product costs, which stem largely from manufacturing complexity. Current mammalian cell culture manufacturing systems yield around 100 µg/l of recombinant fVIII, with a per cell production rate of 0.05 pg/cell/day, representing 10,000-fold lesser production than is achieved for other similar-sized recombinant proteins (e.g. monoclonal antibodies). Expression of human fVIII is rate limited by inefficient transport through the cellular secretory pathway. Recently, we discovered that the orthologous porcine fVIII possesses two distinct sequence elements that enhance secretory transport efficiency. Herein, we describe the development of a bioengineered fVIII product using a novel lentiviral-driven recombinant protein manufacturing platform. The combined implementation of these technologies yielded production cell lines that biosynthesize in excess of 2.5 mg/l of recombinant fVIII at the rate of 9 pg/cell/day, which is the highest level of recombinant fVIII production reported to date, thereby validating the utility of both technologies.

Pharmacokinetic analysis identifies a factor VIII immunogenicity threshold after AAV gene therapy in hemophilia A mice.

Advances in the development of novel treatment options for hemophilia A are prevalent. However, the anti-factor VIII (FVIII) neutralizing antibody (inhibitor) response to existing FVIII products remains a major treatment challenge. Although some novel products are designed to function in the presence of inhibitors, they do not specific address the immunogenicity risk or mechanistic causes of inhibitor development, which remain unclear. Furthermore, most preclinical studies supporting clinical gene therapy programs have reported immunogenicity signals in animal models, especially at higher vector doses and sometimes using multiple vector designs. In these settings, immunogenicity risk factor determination, comparative immunogenicity of competing vector designs, and the potential for obtaining meaningful prognostic data remain relatively unexplored. Additionally, there remains the opportunity to investigate clinical gene therapy as an alternative to standard immune tolerance induction therapy. The current study was designed to address these issues through longitudinal dose-response evaluation of 4 adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector candidates encoding 2 different FVIII transgenes in a murine model of hemophilia A. Plasma FVIII activity and anti-FVIII antibody data were used to generate a pharmacokinetic model that (1) identifies initial AAV-FVIII product expression kinetics as the dominant risk factor for inhibitor development, (2) predicts a therapeutic window where immune tolerance is achieved, and (3) demonstrates evidence of gene therapy-based immune tolerance induction. Although there are known limitations to the predictive value of preclinical immunogenicity testing, these studies can uncover or support the development of design principles that can guide the development of safe and effective genetic medicines.

Dissecting the cellular components of ex vivo γδ T cell expansions to optimize selection of potent cell therapy donors for neuroblastoma immunotherapy trials.

γδ T lymphocytes represent an emerging class of cellular immunotherapy with preclinical promise to treat cancer, notably neuroblastoma. The innate-like immune cell subset demonstrates inherent cytoxicity toward tumor cells independent of MHC recognition, enabling allogeneic administration of healthy donor-derived γδ T cell therapies. A current limitation is the substantial interindividual γδ T cell expansion variation among leukocyte collections. Overcoming this limitation will enable realization of the full potential of allogeneic γδ T-based cellular therapy. Here, we characterize γδ T cell expansions from healthy adult donors and observe that highly potent natural killer (NK) lymphocytes expand with γδ T cells under zoledronate and IL-2 stimulation. The presence of NK cells correlates with both the expansion potential of γδ T cells and the overall potency of the γδ T cell therapy. However, the potency of the cell therapy in combination with an antibody-based immunotherapeutic, dinutuximab, appears to be independent of γδ T/NK cell content both in vitro and in vivo, which minimizes the implication of interindividual expansion differences toward efficacy. Collectively, these studies highlight the utility of maintaining the NK cell population within expanded γδ T cell therapies and suggest a synergistic action of combined innate cell immunotherapy toward neuroblastoma.