Risk factors for complications following breast reduction: results from a randomized control trial.

Reduction mammoplasty has been shown to benefit physical, physiological, and psycho-social health. However, there are some recognized complications. It would be beneficial if one could identify and modify the factors which increase the rate of complications. To determine the effects of resection weight, BMI, age, and smoking on complication rates following reduction mammoplasty. Data were gathered as a part of randomized control trial (RCT) examining psycho-social & QOL benefits of reduction mammoplasty. Sixty-seven consecutive female patients referred to either the Hull Breast Unit or Hull Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Unit and underwent Inferior pedicle reduction mammoplasty were recruited. Complications were recorded prospectively. Data gathered included resection weight, BMI, age, and smoking status. Smoking status was categorized into current; ex; and never. Prospective records of all complications were noted. SPSS was used for purposes of statistical analysis. Of the 67 patients, 16 (23.9%) had complications. Higher resection weight, increased BMI, and older age are associated with high rate of complications with significance reaching p-values of p < 0.001, p = 0.034, and p = 0.004, respectively. Among the 67 women who had surgery, nine (13.4%) were current smokers, 20 (29.9%) were ex-smokers, and 38 (56.7%) never smoked. The incidence of complications was highest among current smokers and lowest among those who had never smoked. When comparing the current smokers with those who are not currently smoking, there is a 37% difference in the occurrence of complication. The chi-squared test shows that this is a significant difference (p < 0.01) at the 99% confidence interval. Higher resection weight, increased BMI, older age, and smoking are risk factors for complications. Patients should be adequately counseled about losing weight and stopping smoking.

Differential proteomics in the search for biomarkers of radiotherapy resistance.

The individualization of radiotherapy treatment would be beneficial for cancer patients; however, there are no predictive biomarkers of radiotherapy resistance in routine clinical use. This article describes the body of work in this field where comparative proteomics methods have been used for the discovery of putative biomarkers associated with radiotherapy resistance. A large number of differentially expressed proteins have been reported, mostly from the study of novel radiotherapy-resistant cell lines. Here, we have assessed these putative biomarkers through the discovery, confirmation and validation phases of the biomarker pipeline, and inform the reader on the current status of proteomics-based findings. Suggested avenues for future work are discussed.

The putative roles of the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway in resistance to anticancer therapy.

The ubiquitin/proteasome (UP) pathway plays a significant role in many important biological functions and alterations in this pathway have been shown to contribute to the pathology of many human diseases, including cancer. Proteasome inhibition has been well established as a rational strategy for the treatment of multiple myeloma and is currently under investigation for the treatment of other haematological malignancies and solid tumours. Recent evidence suggests that proteasome inhibition may also sensitise tumour cells to the actions of both conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy, suggesting that this pathway may modify clinical response to anticancer therapy. However, conflicting evidence exists as to the roles of the UP pathway in resistance to treatment. This review endeavours to discuss such roles.

The proteomic analysis of cisplatin resistance in breast cancer cells.

Resistance to cisplatin represents a major obstacle in the effective management of many cancers, including metastatic breast cancer. We aimed to gain further understanding of the mechanisms underlying development of cisplatin resistance using an in vitro cell line model. The MCF-7 breast cancer cell line and a novel derivative displaying significant resistance to cisplatin were analyzed using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. The protein profiles were compared and 15 differentially expressed proteins were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The downregulation of beta-tubulin type 3, cytokeratin 17, tropomyosin 1-alpha, peroxiredoxin 4, heat shock 27-kDa protein 1, glutathione-S-transferase mu 3, ribosomal protein P0, isocitrate dehydrogenase 3, and peptidyl-prolyl isomerase A isoform 1 was associated with cisplatin-resistant cells. In contrast, the expression of hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase 15-(NAD), matrix metalloproteinase 9, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A3, proteasome beta 1 subunit, electron transfer flavoprotein beta-polypeptide isoform 1, and peptidyl-propyl isomerase B precursor was upregulated in cisplatin-resistant cells. The downregulation (at least twofold) of glutathione-S-transferase mu 3, cytokeratin 17, and peroxiredoxin 4 was confirmed by Western blotting. We have identified alterations in the expression levels of several proteins that may be associated with cisplatin resistance and are candidates for further validation in clinical samples.

The analysis of doxorubicin resistance in human breast cancer cells using antibody microarrays.

Doxorubicin is considered to be the most effective agent in the treatment of breast cancer patients. Unfortunately, resistance to this agent is common, representing a major obstacle to successful treatment. The identification of novel biomarkers that are able to predict treatment response may allow therapy to be tailored to individual patients. Antibody microarrays provide a powerful new technique, enabling the global comparative analysis of many proteins simultaneously. This technology may identify a panel of proteins to discriminate between drug-resistant and drug-sensitive samples. The Panorama Cell Signaling Antibody Microarray was exploited to analyze the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line and a novel derivative, which displays significant resistance to doxorubicin at clinically relevant concentrations. The microarray comprised 224 antibodies selected from a variety of pathways, including apoptotic and cell signaling pathways. A standard >/=2.0-fold cutoff value was used to determine differentially expressed proteins. A decrease in the expression of mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated monophosphotyrosine (phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase; 2.8-fold decrease), cyclin D2 (2.5-fold decrease), cytokeratin 18 (2.5-fold decrease), cyclin B1 (2.4-fold decrease), and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein m3-m4 (2.0-fold decrease) was associated with doxorubicin resistance. Western blotting was exploited to confirm results from the antibody microarray experiment. These results suggest that antibody microarrays can be used to identify novel biomarkers and further validation may reveal mechanisms of chemotherapy resistance and identify potential therapeutic targets. [Mol Cancer Ther 2006;5(8):2115-20].

Clinical response to primary letrozole therapy in elderly patients with early breast cancer: possible role for p53 as a biomarker.

Primary tamoxifen therapy has been widely used to treat elderly women with ER-positive breast cancer in the past. Aromatase inhibitors may be more beneficial than tamoxifen when used as primary endocrine therapy in elderly patients. We aimed to retrospectively evaluate a series of elderly women with ER-positive breast cancer treated with primary letrozole therapy as sole therapy with a minimum of 5 years follow up. To identify possible predictive biomarkers a pilot immunohistochemical analysis was performed to assess the expression of PR, HER2, EGFR, BCL2 and p53. A total of 45 women, aged more than 70 years with a diagnosis of ER-positive breast cancer that was treated with primary letrozole therapy were identified. A case note review was undertaken to obtain clinical information. Formalin fixed paraffin embedded tumour tissue from diagnostic core biopsies was available for all patients. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed to establish the protein expression status of p53, PR, HER2, EGFR and BCL2. The mean age of the 45 patients was 87 years (range 70-101). Clinical benefit was seen in 60% of the patients. Median progression free survival was 53 months (95% CI - 34-72) and the median time to progression was 43 months (95% CI - 22-64). BCL2 was expressed in 45/45 (100%); PR in 38/45 (84%); EGFR in 13/45 (28%); HER2 in 9/45 (20%) and p53 in 5/45 (11%) of tissue samples. Positive expression of p53 was associated with poor progression free survival (p = 0.03) in this pilot study. This study demonstrates that letrozole as sole treatment appears to be a suitable treatment option for elderly patients with ER-positive breast cancer who are not fit for, or decline, surgery. The analysis of p53 in a larger study is warranted in order to assess its role as a biomarker in this patient group.

Pilot and feasibility study: comparative proteomic analysis by 2-DE MALDI TOF/TOF MS reveals 14-3-3 proteins as putative biomarkers of response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in ER-positive breast cancer.

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy is used to treat oestrogen receptor-positive breast cancer however chemo-resistance is a major obstacle in this molecular subtype. The ability to predict tumour response would allow chemotherapy administration to be directed towards patients who would most benefit, thus maximising treatment efficacy. We aimed to identify protein biomarkers associated with response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy, in a pilot study using comparative 2-DE MALDI TOF/TOF MS proteomic analysis of breast tumour samples. A total of 3 comparative proteomic experiments were performed, comparing protein expression between chemotherapy-sensitive and chemotherapy-resistant oestrogen receptor-positive invasive ductal carcinoma tissue samples. This identified a list of 132 unique proteins that were significantly differentially expressed (≥ 2 fold) in chemotherapy resistant samples, 57 of which were identified in at least two experiments. Ingenuity® Pathway Analysis was used to map the 57 DEPs onto canonical signalling pathways. We implicate several isoforms of 14-3-3 family proteins (theta/tau, gamma, epsilon, beta/alpha and zeta/delta), which have previously been associated with chemotherapy resistance in breast cancer. Extensive clinical validation is now required to fully assess the role of these proteins as putative markers of chemotherapy response in luminal breast cancer subtypes.

Proteomic identification of predictive biomarkers of resistance to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in luminal breast cancer: a possible role for 14-3-3 theta/tau and tBID?

INTRODUCTION: Chemotherapy resistance is a major obstacle in effective neoadjuvant treatment for estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer. The ability to predict tumour response would allow chemotherapy administration to be directed towards only those patients who would benefit, thus maximising treatment efficiency. We aimed to identify putative protein biomarkers associated with chemotherapy resistance, using fresh tumour samples with antibody microarray analysis and then to perform pilot clinical validation experiments. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Chemotherapy resistant and chemotherapy sensitive tumour samples were collected from breast cancer patients who had received anthracycline based neoadjuvant therapy consisting of epirubicin with cyclophosphamide followed by docetaxel. A total of 5 comparative proteomics experiments were performed using invasive ductal carcinomas which demonstrated estrogen receptor positivity (luminal subtype). Protein expression was compared between chemotherapy resistant and chemotherapy sensitive tumour samples using the Panorama XPRESS Profiler725 antibody microarray containing 725 antibodies from a wide variety of cell signalling and apoptosis pathways. A pilot series of archival samples was used for clinical validation of putative predictive biomarkers. RESULTS: AbMA analysis revealed 38 differentially expressed proteins which demonstrated at least 1.8 fold difference in expression in chemotherapy resistant tumours and 7 of these proteins (Zyxin, 14-3-3 theta/tau, tBID, Pinin, Bcl-xL, RIP and MyD88) were found in at least 2 experiments. Clinical validation in a pilot series of archival samples revealed 14-3-3 theta/tau and tBID to be significantly associated with chemotherapy resistance. CONCLUSIONS: For the first time, antibody microarrays have been used to identify proteins associated with chemotherapy resistance using fresh breast cancer tissue. We propose a potential role for 14-3-3 theta/tau and tBID as predictive biomarkers of neoadjuvant chemotherapy resistance in breast cancer. Further validation in a larger sample series is now required.

Repeatedly identified differentially expressed proteins (RIDEPs) from antibody microarray proteomic analysis.

Antibody microarrays are powerful new tools in the field of comparative proteomics. The success of the biomarker discovery pipeline relies on the quality of data generated in the discovery phase and careful selection of proteins for the verification phase. Recent meta-analyses found a number of repeatedly identified differentially expressed proteins (RIDEPs) from mass spectrometry-based proteomics research in a range of species. We aimed to assess RIDEPs based on antibody microarray data-sets. A total of 13 independent experiments encompassing a range of oncology-related research on human tissue, cells or cell lines from 5 distinct sample groups were performed utilising a commercial 725 antibody microarray platform (Panorama XPRESS Profiler725; Sigma-Aldrich). Analysis of all microarray slides was carried out by the same individual to reduce inter-observer variability. Fold changes of ≥1.8 were considered significant. A total of 13 RIDEPs were seen, each appearing in at least 4/13 (30%) antibody microarray analyses from at least 2 out of 5 experimental sample groups. The phenomenon of RIDEPs may exist in antibody microarray proteomics and we report a preliminary list of 13 RIDEPs from the XPRESS Profiler725 platform. This information will be useful when interpreting experimental data and considering which DEPs should be prioritised for verification.

A pilot study to investigate the role of the 26S proteasome in radiotherapy resistance and loco-regional recurrence following breast conserving therapy for early breast cancer.

Breast conserving therapy is a currently accepted method for managing patients with early stage breast cancer. However, approximately 7% of patients may develop loco-regional tumour recurrence within 5 years. We previously reported that expression of the 26S proteasome may be associated with radio-resistance. Here we aimed to analyse the 26S proteasome in a pilot series of early breast cancers and correlate the findings with loco-regional recurrence. Fourteen patients with early breast cancer who developed loco-regional recurrence within 4 years of completing breast conserving therapy were selected according to strict criteria and compared with those from 14 patients who were disease-free at 10 years. Decreased expression of the 26S proteasome was significantly associated with radio-resistance, manifested as the development of a loco-regional recurrence within 4 years of breast conserving therapy (p = 0.018). This small pilot study provides further suggestion that the 26S proteasome may be associated with response to radiotherapy.

Quality of life issues in aesthetic breast surgery.

Health is multi-dimensional. Mortality, morbidity and cost are traditional health indicators, whereas outcomes research relates to quality of life and health-related quality of life. This article reviews the literature on quality of life issues in aesthetic breast surgery, highlighting the concepts of health and health outcome measures.

Biomarkers of chemotherapy resistance in breast cancer identified by proteomics: current status.

This review describes and discusses the advantages and limitations of proteomic approaches in the identification of biomarkers associated with chemotherapy resistance. Both gel-based (two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) and gel-free (shotgun and quantitative) mass spectrometry approaches are discussed. Non-mass spectrometry approaches including antibody microarray platforms are described as complementary proteomic strategies. Methods for technical confirmation and clinical validation of putative biomarkers are presented. Use of this proteomic toolbox in the quest for biomarkers of chemotherapy resistance in breast cancer is reviewed. Technical aspects of sample selection, acquisition, storage and analysis are discussed and putative biomarkers identified through proteomic approaches are presented.

Proteomic identification of putative biomarkers of radiotherapy resistance: a possible role for the 26S proteasome?

PURPOSE: We aimed to identify putative predictive protein biomarkers of radioresistance. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Three breast cancer cell lines (MCF7, MDA-MB-231, and T47D) were used as in vitro models to study radioresistance. Inherent radiosensitivities were examined using a clonogenic survival assay. It was revealed that each cell line differed in their response to radiotherapy. These parental breast cancer cell lines were used to establish novel derivatives (MCF7RR, MDA-MB-231RR, and T47DRR) displaying significant resistance to ionizing radiation. Derivative cells were compared with parental cells to identify putative biomarkers associated with the radioresistant phenotype. To identify these biomarkers, complementary proteomic screening approaches were exploited encompassing two-dimensional gel electrophoresis in combination with mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry and quantitative proteomics using iTRAQ technology. RESULTS: A large number of potential biomarkers were identified, and several of these were confirmed using Western blot analysis. In particular, a decrease in the expression of the 26S proteasome was found in all radioresistant derivatives when compared with the respective parent cells. Decreased expression of this target was also found to be associated with radioresistant laryngeal tumors (P = .05) in a small pilot immunohistochemical study. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the 26S proteasome may provide a general predictive biomarker for radiotherapy outcome.

Expression microarray analysis reveals genes associated with in vitro resistance to cisplatin in a cell line model.

We aimed to investigate the mechanisms of cisplatin resistance using an in vitro cancer model. A derivative breast cancer cell line (MCF-7CR) was established which demonstrated significant resistance to cisplatin at clinically relevant low concentrations compared to the MCF-7 parental cell line. Expression microarray analysis was used to identify targets from a 3k cancer-related oligonucleotide platform which were differentially expressed between the derivative and parental cell lines. Real-time quantitative PCR was used to confirm the difference in expression of a subset of genes which demonstrated significant up- or down-regulation. Using expression microarray analysis a total of 28 genes were identified to be differentially expressed (by at least 2-fold) between the MCF-7 and MCF-7CR cells. Real-time quantitative PCR expression analysis confirmed the differential expression of a selection of these genes (ACTG2, ARHD, CTSL, GSTM3, GSTM4 and EHF) between the two cell lines. An in vitro model of cisplatin resistance has been established and expression microarray analysis revealed 28 genes which may be associated with cisplatin resistance.

Management of early breast cancer in the elderly.

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women with an age related increase in incidence ranging from 1 in 50 at age 50 to 1 in 10 at age 80. This is particularly significant in view of the changing demographics in the western population, characterised by an aging population and increased life expectancy. However in spite of favourable prognostic factors and less aggressive biological behaviour, elderly breast cancer patients receive less aggressive treatment when compared with their younger counterparts. Appropriate treatment should be offered depending on physiological reserve and comorbidities. Primary endocrine treatment has been shown to be associated with significant morbidity in terms of disease progression. Prompt surgery and adjuvant treatment can decrease relapse and improve survival. Radiation therapy is shown to decrease local relapse and chemotherapy may have a role in a select group of patients with adverse prognostic factors. With incidence of breast cancer bound to increase in the elderly population, it is essential to establish optimum therapy in this cohort of patients as studies reveal good outcome from standard treatment.

The quality of trials in operative surgery.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the reported quality of trials in operative surgery. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in operative surgery have previously been criticized for using weak methodology despite no evidence to suggest their quality is any different from nonsurgical trials. STUDY DESIGN: All surgical RCTs published in the British Medical Journal, the Journal of the American Medical Association, The Lancet, and the New England Journal of Medicine between 1998 and 2004 were identified. The adequacy of the reported methodology used to perform the randomization, power calculation, and recruitment was assessed for each trial using predefined criteria. The results from the surgical trials were compared with a randomly selected control group of nonsurgical RCTs, which were matched for journal and year of publication. RESULTS: Sixty-six surgical RCTs were identified. Adequate reporting of randomization sequence generation was seen in 42% (n = 28) of surgical trials and 30% (n = 20) of nonsurgical trials, and adequate allocation concealment was recorded in 46% (n = 30) and 47% (n = 31), respectively. When combining these 2 interrelated steps of randomization, only 26% (n = 17) of surgical trials and 23% (n = 15) of nonsurgical trials reported both adequately. Adequate recruitment was recorded in 52% (n = 33 of 63) surgical and 55% (n = 33 of 60) nonsurgical trials, with approximately a quarter (n = 17 and n = 16, respectively) of the trials in both the surgical and nonsurgical categories reporting an adequate power calculation. CONCLUSIONS: There was no evidence that the reported quality of surgical trials was different to nonsurgical trials. However, approximately half or less of all the trials reviewed reported adequate methodology.

Surgery is associated with lower morbidity and longer survival in elderly breast cancer patients over 80.

As breast cancer is the most frequent cancer in the elderly with a peak incidence of 1 in 10 by the age of 80, it is important to establish optimum therapy in this group. We conducted a case note-based retrospective study of all elderly primary breast cancer patients aged 80 and above between 1992 and 2002. The type of treatment, complications, disease progression, recurrence, and overall survival were recorded. In all 110 patients aged 80 and above were treated for primary breast cancer, with 32 patients having advanced disease. Of these, 62 patients received primary endocrine treatment. 48 patients underwent surgery with 30 patients undergoing mastectomy. At follow-up, 34 patients suffered disease progression in the primary endocrine treatment group and three patients had local recurrence in the surgical group. The Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed significantly better survival in the surgical treatment group when compared with the primary endocrine treatment group, both in the early disease (n = 41; median survival: 71 months; compared to n = 37; median survival: 42 months; p = 0.0002) and the advanced disease (n = 7; median survival: 48 months; compared to n = 25; median survival: 36 months; p = 0.03). Prompt surgery and adjuvant treatment can decrease relapse and improve survival even in patients older than 80 years.