Latent goal models for dynamic strategic interaction.

Understanding the principles by which agents interact with both complex environments and each other is a key goal of decision neuroscience. However, most previous studies have used experimental paradigms in which choices are discrete (and few), play is static, and optimal solutions are known. Yet in natural environments, interactions between agents typically involve continuous action spaces, ongoing dynamics, and no known optimal solution. Here, we seek to bridge this divide by using a "penalty shot" task in which pairs of monkeys competed against each other in a competitive, real-time video game. We modeled monkeys' strategies as driven by stochastically evolving goals, onscreen positions that served as set points for a control model that produced observed joystick movements. We fit this goal-based dynamical system model using approximate Bayesian inference methods, using neural networks to parameterize players' goals as a dynamic mixture of Gaussian components. Our model is conceptually simple, constructed of interpretable components, and capable of generating synthetic data that capture the complexity of real player dynamics. We further characterized players' strategies using the number of change points on each trial. We found that this complexity varied more across sessions than within sessions, and that more complex strategies benefited offensive players but not defensive players. Together, our experimental paradigm and model offer a powerful combination of tools for the study of realistic social dynamics in the laboratory setting.

Comparison of discrete ratios by rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

Perceiving and comparing ratios are crucial skills for humans. Little is known about whether other animals can compare ratios. We trained two rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to choose arrays that contained the greater ratio of positive to negative stimuli, regardless of the absolute number of stimuli in each of the two choice arrays. Subjects learned this task, and their performance generalized to novel ratios. Moreover, performance was modulated by the ratio between ratios; subjects responded more quickly and accurately when the ratio between ratios was higher. Control conditions ruled out the possibility that subjects were relying on surface area, although the ratio between ratios of surface area did seem to influence their choices. Our results demonstrate that rhesus monkeys can compare discrete ratios, demonstrating not only proportional reasoning ability but also the ability to reason about relations between relations.

Implicit sequence learning in ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta).

Implicit learning involves picking up information from the environment without explicit instruction or conscious awareness of the learning process. In nonhuman animals, conscious awareness is impossible to assess, so we define implicit learning as occurring when animals acquire information beyond what is required for successful task performance. While implicit learning has been documented in some nonhuman species, it has not been explored in prosimian primates. Here we ask whether ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) learn sequential information implicitly. We tested lemurs in a modified version of the serial reaction time task on a touch screen computer. Lemurs were required to respond to any picture within a 2 × 2 grid of pictures immediately after its surrounding border flickered. Over 20 training sessions, both the locations and the identities of the images remained constant and response times gradually decreased. Subsequently, the locations and/or the identities of the images were disrupted. Response times indicated that the lemurs had learned the physical location sequence required in original training but did not learn the identity of the images. Our results reveal that ring-tailed lemurs can implicitly learn spatial sequences, and raise questions about which scenarios and evolutionary pressures give rise to perceptual versus motor-implicit sequence learning.

Non-invasive primate head restraint using thermoplastic masks.

BACKGROUND: The success of many neuroscientific studies depends upon adequate head fixation of awake, behaving animals. Typically, this is achieved by surgically affixing a head-restraint prosthesis to the skull. NEW METHOD: Here we report the use of thermoplastic masks to non-invasively restrain monkeys' heads. Mesh thermoplastic sheets become pliable when heated and can then be molded to an individual monkey's head. After cooling, the custom mask retains this shape indefinitely for day-to-day use. RESULTS: We successfully trained rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to perform cognitive tasks while wearing thermoplastic masks. Using these masks, we achieved a level of head stability sufficient for high-resolution eye-tracking and intracranial electrophysiology. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD: Compared with traditional head-posts, we find that thermoplastic masks perform at least as well during infrared eye-tracking and single-neuron recordings, allow for clearer magnetic resonance image acquisition, enable freer placement of a transcranial magnetic stimulation coil, and impose lower financial and time costs on the lab. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that thermoplastic masks are a viable non-invasive form of primate head restraint that enable a wide range of neuroscientific experiments.

Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) map number onto space.

Humans map number onto space. However, the origins of this association, and particularly the degree to which it depends upon cultural experience, are not fully understood. Here we provide the first demonstration of a number-space mapping in a non-human primate. We trained four adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) to select the fourth position from the bottom of a five-element vertical array. Monkeys maintained a preference to choose the fourth position through changes in the appearance, location, and spacing of the vertical array. We next asked whether monkeys show a spatially-oriented number mapping by testing their responses to the same five-element stimulus array rotated ninety degrees into a horizontal line. In these horizontal probe trials, monkeys preferentially selected the fourth position from the left, but not the fourth position from the right. Our results indicate that rhesus macaques map number onto space, suggesting that the association between number and space in human cognition is not purely a result of cultural experience and instead has deep evolutionary roots.