Primaquine radical cure in patients with Plasmodium falciparum malaria in areas co-endemic for P falciparum and Plasmodium vivax (PRIMA): a multicentre, open-label, superiority randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: In areas co-endemic for Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum there is an increased risk of P vivax parasitaemia following P falciparum malaria. Radical cure is currently only recommended for patients presenting with P vivax malaria. Expanding the indication for radical cure to patients presenting with P falciparum malaria could reduce their risk of subsequent P vivax parasitaemia. METHODS: We did a multicentre, open-label, superiority randomised controlled trial in five health clinics in Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Ethiopia. In Bangladesh and Indonesia, patients were excluded if they were younger than 1 year, whereas in Ethiopia patients were excluded if they were younger than 18 years. Patients with uncomplicated P falciparum monoinfection who had fever or a history of fever in the 48 h preceding clinic visit were eligible for enrolment and were required to have a glucose-6-dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity of 70% or greater. Patients received blood schizontocidal treatment (artemether-lumefantrine in Ethiopia and Bangladesh and dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine in Indonesia) and were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive either high-dose short-course oral primaquine (intervention arm; total dose 7 mg/kg over 7 days) or standard care (standard care arm; single dose oral primaquine of 0·25 mg/kg). Random assignment was done by an independent statistician in blocks of eight by use of sealed envelopes. All randomly assigned and eligible patients were included in the primary and safety analyses. The per-protocol analysis excluded those who did not complete treatment or had substantial protocol violations. The primary endpoint was the incidence risk of P vivax parasitaemia on day 63. This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03916003. FINDINGS: Between Aug 18, 2019, and March 14, 2022, a total of 500 patients were enrolled and randomly assigned, and 495 eligible patients were included in the intention-to-treat analysis (246 intervention and 249 control). The incidence risk of P vivax parasitaemia at day 63 was 11·0% (95% CI 7·5-15·9) in the standard care arm compared with 2·5% (1·0-5·9) in the intervention arm (hazard ratio 0·20, 95% CI 0·08-0·51; p=0·0009). The effect size differed with blood schizontocidal treatment and site. Routine symptom reporting on day 2 and day 7 were similar between groups. In the first 42 days, there were a total of four primaquine-related adverse events reported in the standard care arm and 26 in the intervention arm; 132 (92%) of all 143 adverse events were mild. There were two serious adverse events in the intervention arm, which were considered unrelated to the study drug. None of the patients developed severe anaemia (defined as haemoglobin <5 g/dL). INTERPRETATION: In patients with a G6PD activity of 70% or greater, high-dose short-course primaquine was safe and relatively well tolerated and reduced the risk of subsequent P vivax parasitaemia within 63 days by five fold. Universal radical cure therefore potentially offers substantial clinical, public health, and operational benefits, but these benefits will vary with endemic setting. FUNDING: Australian Academy of Science Regional Collaborations Program, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and National Health and Medical Research Council.

The heterogeneity of symptom reporting across study sites: a secondary analysis of a randomised placebo-controlled multicentre antimalarial trial.

INTRODUCTION: Symptoms reported following the administration of investigational drugs play an important role in decisions for registration and treatment guidelines. However, symptoms are subjective, and interview methods to quantify them are difficult to standardise. We explored differences in symptom reporting across study sites of a multicentre antimalarial trial, with the aim of informing trial design and the interpretation of safety and tolerability data. METHODS: Data were derived from the IMPROV trial, a randomised, placebo-controlled double blinded trial of high dose primaquine to prevent Plasmodium vivax recurrence conducted in eight study sites in Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Indonesia and Vietnam. At each follow up visit a 13-point symptom questionnaire was completed. The number and percentage of patients with clinically relevant symptoms following the administration of primaquine or placebo, were reported by study site including vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia, nausea, abdominal pain and dizziness. Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate the confounder-adjusted site-specific proportion of each symptom. RESULTS: A total of 2,336 patients were included. The greatest variation between sites in the proportion of patients reporting symptoms was for anorexia between day 0 and day 13: 97.3% (361/371) of patients in Arba Minch, Ethiopia, reported the symptom compared with 4.7% (5/106) of patients in Krong Pa, Vietnam. Differences attenuated slightly after adjusting for treatment arm, age, sex, day 0 parasite density and fever; with the adjusted proportion for anorexia ranging from 4.8% to 97.0%. Differences between sites were greater for symptoms graded as mild or moderate compared to those rated as severe. Differences in symptom reporting were greater between study sites than between treatment arms within the same study site. CONCLUSION: Despite standardised training, there was large variation in symptom reporting across trial sites. The reporting of severe symptoms was less skewed compared to mild and moderate symptoms, which are likely to be more subjective. Trialists should clearly distinguish between safety and tolerability outcomes. Differences between trial arms were much less variable across sites, suggesting that the relative difference in reported symptoms between intervention and control group is more relevant than absolute numbers and should be reported when possible. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01814683; March 20th, 2013.

Using syndromic measures of mortality to capture the dynamics of COVID-19 in Java, Indonesia, in the context of vaccination rollout.

BACKGROUND: As in many countries, quantifying COVID-19 spread in Indonesia remains challenging due to testing limitations. In Java, non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) were implemented throughout 2020. However, as a vaccination campaign launches, cases and deaths are rising across the island. METHODS: We used modelling to explore the extent to which data on burials in Jakarta using strict COVID-19 protocols (C19P) provide additional insight into the transmissibility of the disease, epidemic trajectory, and the impact of NPIs. We assess how implementation of NPIs in early 2021 will shape the epidemic during the period of likely vaccine rollout. RESULTS: C19P burial data in Jakarta suggest a death toll approximately 3.3 times higher than reported. Transmission estimates using these data suggest earlier, larger, and more sustained impact of NPIs. Measures to reduce sub-national spread, particularly during Ramadan, substantially mitigated spread to more vulnerable rural areas. Given current trajectory, daily cases and deaths are likely to increase in most regions as the vaccine is rolled out. Transmission may peak in early 2021 in Jakarta if current levels of control are maintained. However, relaxation of control measures is likely to lead to a subsequent resurgence in the absence of an effective vaccination campaign. CONCLUSIONS: Syndromic measures of mortality provide a more complete picture of COVID-19 severity upon which to base decision-making. The high potential impact of the vaccine in Java is attributable to reductions in transmission to date and dependent on these being maintained. Increases in control in the relatively short-term will likely yield large, synergistic increases in vaccine impact.

Short-course primaquine for the radical cure of Plasmodium vivax malaria: a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled non-inferiority trial.

BACKGROUND: Primaquine is the only widely used drug that prevents Plasmodium vivax malaria relapses, but adherence to the standard 14-day regimen is poor. We aimed to assess the efficacy of a shorter course (7 days) of primaquine for radical cure of vivax malaria. METHODS: We did a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, non-inferiority trial in eight health-care clinics (two each in Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and Vietnam). Patients (aged ≥6 months) with normal glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) and presenting with uncomplicated vivax malaria were enrolled. Patients were given standard blood schizontocidal treatment and randomly assigned (2:2:1) to receive 7 days of supervised primaquine (1·0 mg/kg per day), 14 days of supervised primaquine (0·5 mg/kg per day), or placebo. The primary endpoint was the incidence rate of symptomatic P vivax parasitaemia during the 12-month follow-up period, assessed in the intention-to-treat population. A margin of 0·07 recurrences per person-year was used to establish non-inferiority of the 7-day regimen compared with the 14-day regimen. This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT01814683). FINDINGS: Between July 20, 2014, and Nov 25, 2017, 2336 patients were enrolled. The incidence rate of symptomatic recurrent P vivax malaria was 0·18 (95% CI 0·15 to 0·21) recurrences per person-year for 935 patients in the 7-day primaquine group and 0·16 (0·13 to 0·18) for 937 patients in the 14-day primaquine group, a difference of 0·02 (-0·02 to 0·05, p=0·3405). The incidence rate for 464 patients in the placebo group was 0·96 (95% CI 0·83 to 1·08) recurrences per person-year. Potentially drug-related serious adverse events within 42 days of starting treatment were reported in nine (1·0%) of 935 patients in the 7-day group, one (0·1%) of 937 in the 14-day group and none of 464 in the control arm. Four of the serious adverse events were significant haemolysis (three in the 7-day group and one in the 14-day group). INTERPRETATION: In patients with normal G6PD, 7-day primaquine was well tolerated and non-inferior to 14-day primaquine. The short-course regimen might improve adherence and therefore the effectiveness of primaquine for radical cure of P vivax malaria. FUNDING: UK Department for International Development, UK Medical Research Council, UK National Institute for Health Research, and the Wellcome Trust through the Joint Global Health Trials Scheme (MR/K007424/1) and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1054404).

Defining malaria risks among forest workers in Aceh, Indonesia: a formative assessment.

BACKGROUND: Following a dramatic decline of malaria cases in Aceh province, geographically-based reactive case detection (RACD) was recently evaluated as a tool to improve surveillance with the goal of malaria elimination. While RACD detected few cases in households surrounding index cases, engaging in forest work was identified as a risk factor for malaria and infections from Plasmodium knowlesi-a non-human primate malaria parasite-were more common than expected. This qualitative formative assessment was conducted to improve understanding of malaria risk from forest work and identify strategies for targeted surveillance among forest workers, including adapting reactive case detection. METHODS: Between June and August, 2016, five focus groups and 18 in-depth interviews with forest workers and key informants were conducted in each of four subdistricts in Aceh Besar and Aceh Jaya districts. Themes included: types of forest activities, mobility of workers, interactions with non-human primates, malaria prevention and treatment-seeking behaviours, and willingness to participate in malaria surveys at forest work sites and using peer-referral. RESULTS: Reported forest activities included mining, logging, and agriculture in the deep forest and along the forest fringe. Forest workers, particularly miners and loggers, described often spending weeks to months at work sites in makeshift housing, rarely utilizing mosquito prevention and, upon fever, self-medicating and seeking care from traditional healers or pharmacies rather than health facilities. Non-human primates are frequently observed near work sites, and most forest work locations are within a day's journey of health clinics. Employers and workers expressed interest in undertaking malaria testing and in participating in survey recruitment by peer-referral and at work sites. CONCLUSIONS: Diverse groups of forest workers in Aceh are potentially exposed to malaria through forest work. Passive surveillance and household-based screening may under-estimate malaria burden due to extended stays in the forest and health-seeking behaviours. Adapting active surveillance to specifically target forest workers through work-site screening and/or peer-referral appears promising for addressing currently undetected infections.

Randomized trial of primaquine hypnozoitocidal efficacy when administered with artemisinin-combined blood schizontocides for radical cure of Plasmodium vivax in Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Safety and efficacy of primaquine against repeated attacks of Plasmodium vivax depends upon co-administered blood schizontocidal therapy in radical cure. We assessed primaquine (PQ) as hypnozoitocide when administered with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (Eurartesim®, DHA-PP) or artesunate-pyronaridine (Pyramax®, AS-PYR) to affirm its good tolerability and efficacy. A third arm, artesunate followed by primaquine, was not intended as therapy for practice, but addressed a hypothesis concerning primaquine efficacy without co-administration of blood schizontocide. METHODS: During March to July 2013, an open-label, randomized trial enrolled Indonesian soldiers with vivax malaria at Sragen, Central Java, after six months duty in malarious Papua, Indonesia. No malaria transmission occurred at the study site and P. vivax recurrences in the 12 months following therapy were classified as relapses. A historic relapse control derived from a cohort of soldiers who served in the same area of Papua was applied to estimate risk of relapse among randomized treatment groups. Those were: 1) AS followed 2d later by PQ (0.5 mg/kg daily for 14d); 2) co-formulated AS-PYR concurrent with the same regimen of PQ; or 3) co-formulated DHA-PP concurrent with the same regimen of PQ. RESULTS: Among 532 soldiers, 219 had vivax malaria during the four months following repatriation to Java; 180 of these were otherwise healthy and G6PD-normal and enrolled in the trial. Subjects in all treatment groups tolerated the therapies well without untoward events and cleared parasitemia within three days. First relapse appeared at day 39 post-enrollment, and the last at day 270. Therapeutic efficacy of PQ against relapse by incidence density analysis was 92 % (95 %CI = 83-97 %), 94 %(95 %CI = 86-97 %), and 95 %(95 %CI = 88-98 %) when combined with AS, AS-PYR, or DHA-PP, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This trial offers evidence of good tolerability and efficacy of PQ against P. vivax relapse when administered concurrently with DHA-PP or AS-PYR. These offer alternative partner drugs for radical cure with primaquine. The AS arm demonstrated efficacy with a total dose of 7 mg/kg PQ without concurrently administered blood schizontocide, another option when primaquine therapy is removed in time from the treatment of the acute malaria or applied presumptively without an attack. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN82366390, assigned 20 March 2013.

A comprehensive assessment of the malaria microscopy system of Aceh, Indonesia, in preparation for malaria elimination.

BACKGROUND: The Health Office of Aceh aims to eliminate malaria from Aceh Province, Indonesia by 2015. Malaria was formerly common in Aceh (population 4.5 million), but has declined dramatically in recent years consequent to post-tsunami control efforts. Successful elimination will depend upon rapid and accurate diagnosis and case follow-up at community level. A prerequisite to this is widespread coverage of high quality malaria diagnosis. This study describes the results of a comprehensive assessment of the malaria diagnostic capacity in Aceh as the province moves towards malaria elimination. METHODS: The study was conducted in 23 districts in Aceh from October 2010 to July 2011. Six types of questionnaires were used to collect data on competency of microscopists and laboratory capacity. Standardized slides were used to evaluate the proficiency of all microscopists. In addition, site visits to 17 primary health centres (PHC) assessed diagnostic practice and logistics capacity. RESULTS: Five hundred and seventy four malaria microscopists have been officially registered and assigned to duty in the 23 districts in Aceh Province. They work in 345 laboratories, predominantly in PHCs (69 %) and hospitals (25 %). Three laboratories were evaluated as adequate for all 30 elements, while 29 laboratories were adequate for less than five of 30 elements. Standardized proficiency tests showed that 413 microscopists were at basic (in training) level, with 10 advanced and 9 reference level. No microscopist achieved expert level. Neither the province nor any of Aceh's districts has a standardized inventory and logistics database for malaria diagnostics, nor did any of the surveyed laboratories operate a quality assurance programme for either microscopy or rapid diagnostic tests. CONCLUSIONS: The study highlights the importance of careful assessment of diagnostic capacity when embarking upon a large-scale malaria elimination programme. Aceh's laboratories have minimal infrastructure with nearly all microscopists still in training. On the positive side, a large workforce of microscopists has been assigned to laboratories with the needed equipment. Aceh will need to embark on a large-scale comprehensive quality assurance scheme if it is to achieve malaria elimination.

Implementation of a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Live Attenuated Malaria Sporozoite Vaccines in an Indonesian Military Study Population.

Malaria eradication efforts prioritize safe and efficient vaccination strategies, although none with high-level efficacy against malaria infection are yet available. Among several vaccine candidates, Sanaria® PfSPZ Vaccine and Sanaria PfSPZ-CVac are, respectively, live radiation- and chemo-attenuated sporozoite vaccines designed to prevent infection with Plasmodium falciparum, the leading cause of malaria-related morbidity and mortality. We are conducting a randomized normal saline placebo-controlled trial called IDSPZV1 that will analyze the safety, tolerability, immunogenicity, and efficacy of PfSPZ Vaccine and PfSPZ-CVac administered pre-deployment to malaria-naive Indonesian soldiers assigned to temporary duties in a high malaria transmission area. We describe the manifold challenges of enrolling and immunizing 345 soldier participants at their home base in western Indonesia before their nearly 6,000-km voyage to eastern Indonesia, where they are being monitored for incident P. falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria cases during 9 months of exposure. The unique regulatory, ethical, and operational complexities of this trial demonstrate the importance of thorough planning, frequent communication, and close follow-up with stakeholders. Effective engagement with the military community and the ability to adapt to unanticipated events have proven key to the success of this trial.

Randomized, open-label trial of primaquine against vivax malaria relapse in Indonesia.

Radical cure of Plasmodium vivax infection applies blood schizontocidal therapy against the acute attack and hypnozoitocidal therapy against later relapse. Chloroquine and primaquine have been used for 60 years in this manner. Resistance to chloroquine by the parasite now requires partnering other blood schizontocides with primaquine. However, the safety and efficacy of primaquine against relapse when combined with other drugs have not been demonstrated. This randomized, open-label, and relapse-controlled trial estimated the efficacy of primaquine against relapse when administered with quinine or dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for treatment of the acute infection. Among 650 soldiers who had returned to their malaria-free base in Java, Indonesia, after 12 months in malarious Papua, Indonesia, 143 with acute P. vivax malaria were eligible for study. One hundred sixteen enrolled subjects were randomized to these treatments: artesunate (200-mg dose followed by 100 mg/day for 6 days), quinine (1.8 g/day for 7 days) plus concurrent primaquine (30 mg/day for 14 days), or dihydroartemisinin (120 mg) plus piperaquine (960 mg) daily for 3 days followed 25 days later by primaquine (30 mg/day for 14 days). Follow-up was for 12 months. One hundred thirteen subjects were analyzable. Relapse occurred in 32 of 41 (78%) subjects administered artesunate alone (2.71 attacks/person-year), 7 of 36 (19%) administered quinine plus primaquine (0.23 attack/person-year), and 2 of 36 (6%) administered dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine plus primaquine (0.06 attack/person-year). The efficacy of primaquine against relapse was 92% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 81% to 96%) for quinine plus primaquine and 98% (95% CI = 91% to 99%) for dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine plus primaquine. Antirelapse therapy with primaquine begun a month after treatment of the acute attack with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine proved safe and highly efficacious against relapse by P. vivax acquired in Papua, Indonesia.

Weekly primaquine for radical cure of patients with Plasmodium vivax malaria and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization recommends that primaquine should be given once weekly for 8-weeks to patients with Plasmodium vivax malaria and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, but data on its antirelapse efficacy and safety are limited. METHODS: Within the context of a multicentre, randomised clinical trial of two primaquine regimens in P. vivax malaria, patients with G6PD deficiency were excluded and enrolled into a separate 12-month observational study. They were treated with a weekly dose of 0.75 mg/kg primaquine for 8 weeks (PQ8W) plus dihydroartemisinin piperaquine (Indonesia) or chloroquine (Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Vietnam). G6PD status was diagnosed using the fluorescent spot test and confirmed by genotyping for locally prevalent G6PD variants. The risk of P. vivax recurrence following PQ8W and the consequent haematological recovery were characterized in all patients and in patients with genotypically confirmed G6PD variants, and compared with the patients enrolled in the main randomised control trial. RESULTS: Between July 2014 and November 2017, 42 male and 8 female patients were enrolled in Afghanistan (6), Ethiopia (5), Indonesia (19), and Vietnam (20). G6PD deficiency was confirmed by genotyping in 31 patients: Viangchan (14), Mediterranean (4), 357A-G (3), Canton (2), Kaiping (2), and one each for A-, Chatham, Gaohe, Ludhiana, Orissa, and Vanua Lava. Two patients had recurrent P. vivax parasitaemia (days 68 and 207). The overall 12-month cumulative risk of recurrent P. vivax malaria was 5.1% (95% CI: 1.3-18.9) and the incidence rate of recurrence was 46.8 per 1000 person-years (95% CI: 11.7-187.1). The risk of P. vivax recurrence was lower in G6PD deficient patients treated with PQ8W compared to G6PD normal patients in all treatment arms of the randomised controlled trial. Two of the 26 confirmed hemizygous males had a significant fall in haemoglobin (>5g/dl) after the first dose but were able to complete their 8 week regimen. CONCLUSIONS: PQ8W was highly effective in preventing P. vivax recurrences. Whilst PQ8W was well tolerated in most patients across a range of different G6PD variants, significant falls in haemoglobin may occur after the first dose and require clinical monitoring. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT01814683).

Tafenoquine co-administered with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for the radical cure of Plasmodium vivax malaria (INSPECTOR): a randomised, placebo-controlled, efficacy and safety study.

BACKGROUND: Tafenoquine, co-administered with chloroquine, is approved for the radical cure (prevention of relapse) of Plasmodium vivax malaria. In areas of chloroquine resistance, artemisinin-based combination therapies are used to treat malaria. This study aimed to evaluate tafenoquine plus the artemisinin-based combination therapy dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for the radical cure of P vivax malaria. METHODS: In this double-blind, double-dummy, parallel group study, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase-normal Indonesian soldiers with microscopically confirmed P vivax malaria were randomly assigned by means of a computer-generated randomisation schedule (1:1:1) to dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine alone, dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine plus a masked single 300-mg dose of tafenoquine, or dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine plus 14 days of primaquine (15 mg). The primary endpoint was 6-month relapse-free efficacy following tafenoquine plus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine versus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine alone in all randomly assigned patients who received at least one dose of masked treatment and had microscopically confirmed P vivax at baseline (microbiological intention-to-treat population). Safety was a secondary outcome and the safety population comprised all patients who received at least one dose of masked medication. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02802501 and is completed. FINDINGS: Between April 8, 2018, and Feb 4, 2019, of 164 patients screened for eligibility, 150 were randomly assigned (50 per treatment group). 6-month Kaplan-Meier relapse-free efficacy (microbiological intention to treat) was 11% (95% CI 4-22) in patients treated with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine alone versus 21% (11-34) in patients treated with tafenoquine plus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (hazard ratio 0·44; 95% CI [0·29-0·69]) and 52% (37-65) in the primaquine plus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine group. Adverse events over the first 28 days were reported in 27 (54%) of 50 patients treated with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine alone, 29 (58%) of 50 patients treated with tafenoquine plus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine, and 22 (44%) of 50 patients treated with primaquine plus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine. Serious adverse events were reported in one (2%) of 50, two (4%) of 50, and two (4%) of 50 of patients, respectively. INTERPRETATION: Although tafenoquine plus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine was statistically superior to dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine alone for the radical cure of P vivax malaria, the benefit was not clinically meaningful. This contrasts with previous studies in which tafenoquine plus chloroquine was clinically superior to chloroquine alone for radical cure of P vivax malaria. FUNDING: ExxonMobil, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Newcrest Mining, UK Government all through Medicines for Malaria Venture; and GSK. TRANSLATION: For the Indonesian translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Quantifying spatial heterogeneity of malaria in the endemic Papua region of Indonesia: Analysis of epidemiological surveillance data.

Background: As control efforts progress towards elimination, malaria is likely to become more spatially concentrated in few local areas. The purpose of this study was to quantify and characterise spatial heterogeneity in malaria transmission-intensity across highly endemic Indonesian Papua. Methods: We analysed individual-level malaria surveillance data for nearly half a million cases (2019-2020) reported in the Papua and West Papua provinces and adapted the Gini index approach to quantify spatial heterogeneity at the district and health-unit levels. In this context, high Gini index implies disproportionately distributed malaria cases across the region. We showed malaria incidence trends and the spatial and temporal distribution of sociodemographic characteristics and aetiological parasites among cases. Findings: While Papua province accounted for the majority of malaria cases reported in the region and had seen a rise in transmission since 2015, West Papua province had maintained a comparatively low incidence. We observed that Gini index estimates were high, particularly when the lower spatial scale of health units was evaluated. The Gini index appears to be inversely associated to annual parasite-incidence, as well as the proportions of vivax malaria, male sex, and adults. Interpretation: This study suggests that areas with varying levels of transmission-intensities exhibited distinct characteristics. Malaria was distributed in a markedly disproportionate manner throughout the region, emphasising the need for spatially targeted interventions. Periodic quantification and characterisation of risk heterogeneity at various spatial levels using routine malaria surveillance data may aid in tracking progress towards elimination and guiding evidence-informed prioritisation of resource allocation. Funding: The study was funded by the Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Indo-Pacific Centre for Health Security through the Strengthening Preparedness in the Asia-Pacific Region through Knowledge (SPARK) project.

Pandemic inequity in a megacity: a multilevel analysis of individual, community and healthcare vulnerability risks for COVID-19 mortality in Jakarta, Indonesia.

INTRODUCTION: Worldwide, the 33 recognised megacities comprise approximately 7% of the global population, yet account for 20% COVID-19 deaths. The specific inequities and other factors within megacities that affect vulnerability to COVID-19 mortality remain poorly defined. We assessed individual, community-level and healthcare factors associated with COVID-19-related mortality in a megacity of Jakarta, Indonesia, during two epidemic waves spanning 2 March 2020 to 31 August 2021. METHODS: This retrospective cohort included residents of Jakarta, Indonesia, with PCR-confirmed COVID-19. We extracted demographic, clinical, outcome (recovered or died), vaccine coverage data and disease prevalence from Jakarta Health Office surveillance records, and collected subdistrict level sociodemographics data from various official sources. We used multilevel logistic regression to examine individual, community and subdistrict-level healthcare factors and their associations with COVID-19 mortality. RESULTS: Of 705 503 cases with a definitive outcome by 31 August 2021, 694 706 (98.5%) recovered and 10 797 (1.5%) died. The median age was 36 years (IQR 24-50), 13.2% (93 459) were <18 years and 51.6% were female. The subdistrict level accounted for 1.5% of variance in mortality (p<0.0001). Mortality ranged from 0.9 to 1.8% by subdistrict. Individual-level factors associated with death were older age, male sex, comorbidities and age <5 years during the first wave (adjusted OR (aOR)) 1.56, 95% CI 1.04 to 2.35; reference: age 20-29 years). Community-level factors associated with death were poverty (aOR for the poorer quarter 1.35, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.55; reference: wealthiest quarter) and high population density (aOR for the highest density 1.34, 95% CI 1.14 to 2.58; reference: the lowest). Healthcare factor associated with death was low vaccine coverage (aOR for the lowest coverage 1.25, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.38; reference: the highest). CONCLUSION: In addition to individual risk factors, living in areas with high poverty and density, and low healthcare performance further increase the vulnerability of communities to COVID-19-associated death in urban low-resource settings.

Mortality among healthcare workers in Indonesia during 18 months of COVID-19.

The impact of SARS-CoV-2 infections upon Indonesian health care workers (HCWs) is unknown due to the lack of systematic collection and analysis of mortality data specific to HCWs in this setting. This report details the results of a systematic compilation, abstraction and analysis of HCW fatalities in Indonesia during the first 18 months of COVID-19. HCW who passed away between March 2020 and July 2021 were identified using Pusara Digital, a community-based digital cemetery database dedicated to HCW. We calculated the mortality rates and death risk ratio of HCWs versus the general population. The analysis indicates that at least 1,545 HCWs died during the study period. Death rates among males and females HCWs were nearly equivalent (51% vs. 49%). The majority were physicians and specialists (535, 35%), nurses (428, 28%), and midwives (359, 23%). Most deaths occurred between the ages of 40 to 59 years old, with the median age being 50 years (IQR: 39-59). At least 322 deaths (21%) occurred with pre-existing conditions, including 45 pregnant women. During the first 18 months of COVID-19 in Indonesia, we estimated a minimum HCW mortality rate of 1.707 deaths per 1,000 HCWs. The provincial rates of HCW mortality ranged from 0.136 (West Sulawesi) to 5.32 HCW deaths per 1,000 HCWs (East Java). The HCW mortality rate was significantly higher than that of the general population (RR = 4.92, 95% CI 4.67-5.17). The COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia resulted in the loss of many hundreds of HCWs, the majority of whom were senior healthcare workers. The HCW mortality rate is five times that of the general population. A national systematic surveillance of occupational mortality is urgently needed in this setting.

Clinical characteristics and mortality associated with COVID-19 in Jakarta, Indonesia: A hospital-based retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Data on COVID-19-related mortality and associated factors from low-resource settings are scarce. This study examined clinical characteristics and factors associated with in-hospital mortality of COVID-19 patients in Jakarta, Indonesia, from March 2 to July 31, 2020. METHODS: This retrospective cohort included all hospitalised patients with PCR-confirmed COVID-19 in 55 hospitals. We extracted demographic and clinical data, including hospital outcomes (discharge or death). We used logistic regression to examine factors associated with mortality. FINDINGS: Of 4265 patients with a definitive outcome by July 31, 3768 (88%) were discharged and 497 (12%) died. The median age was 46 years (IQR 32-57), 5% were children, and 31% had >1 comorbidity. Age-specific mortalities were 11% (7/61) for <5 years; 4% (1/23) for 5-9; 2% (3/133) for 10-19; 2% (8/638) for 20-29; 3% (26/755) for 30-39; 7% (61/819) for 40-49; 17% (155/941) for 50-59; 22% (132/611) for 60-69; and 34% (96/284) for ≥70. Risk of death was associated with higher age, male sex; pre-existing hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease; clinical diagnosis of pneumonia; multiple (>3) symptoms; immediate ICU admission, or intubation. Across all ages, risk of death was higher for patients with >1 comorbidity compared to those without; notably the risk was six-fold increased among patients <50 years (adjusted odds ratio 5.87, 95%CI 3.28-10.52; 27% vs 3% mortality). INTERPRETATION: Overall in-hospital mortality was lower than reported in high-income countries, probably due to younger age distribution and fewer comorbidities. Deaths occurred across all ages, with >10% mortality among children <5 years and adults >50 years.

Accurate light microscopic diagnosis of South-East Asian ovalocytosis.

INTRODUCTION: South-East Asian ovalocytosis (SAO) is a common inherited red blood cell polymorphism in South-East Asian and Melanesian populations, coinciding with areas of malaria endemicity. Validation of light microscopy as a diagnostic alternative to molecular genotyping may allow for its cost-effective use either prospectively or retrospectively by analysis of archived blood smears. METHODS: We assessed light microscopic diagnosis of SAO compared to standard PCR genotyping. Three trained microscopists each assessed the same 971 Giemsa-stained thin blood films for which SAO genotypic confirmation was available by PCR. Generalized mixed modeling was used to estimate the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of light microscopy vs "gold standard" PCR. RESULTS: Among red cell morphologic parameters evaluated, knizocytes, rather than ovalocytic morphology, proved the strongest predictor of SAO status (odds ratio [OR] = 19.2; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 14.6-25.3; P ≤ 0.0001). The diagnostic performance of a knizocyte-centric microscopic approach was microscopist dependent: two microscopists applied this approach with a sensitivity of 0.89 and a specificity of 0.93. Inter-rater reliability among the microscopists (κ = 0.20) as well as between gold standard and microscopist (κ = 0.36) underperformed due to misclassification of stomatocytes as knizocytes by one microscopist, but improved substantially when excluding the error-prone reader (κ = 0.65 and 0.74, respectively). CONCLUSION: Light microscopic diagnosis of SAO by knizocyte visual cue performed comparable to time-consuming and costlier molecular methods, but requires specific training that includes successful differentiation of knizocytes from stomatocytes.