In-Brain Multiphoton Imaging of Vaterite Cargoes Loaded with Carbon Dots.

Biocompatible fluorescent agents are key contributors to the theranostic paradigm by enabling real-time in vivo imaging. This study explores the optical properties of phenylenediamine carbon dots (CDs) and demonstrates their potential for fluorescence imaging in cells and brain blood vessels. The nonlinear absorption cross-section of the CDs was measured and achieved values near 50 Goeppert-Mayer (GM) units with efficient excitation in the 775-895 nm spectral range. Mesoporous vaterite nanoparticles were loaded with CDs to examine the possibility of a biocompatible imaging platform. Efficient one- and two-photon imaging of the CD-vaterite composites uptaken by diverse cells was demonstrated. For an in vivo scenario, CD-vaterite composites were injected into the bloodstream of a mouse, and their flow was monitored within the blood vessels of the brain through a cranial window. These results show the potential of the platform for high-brightness biocompatible imaging with the potential for both sensing and simultaneous drug delivery.

Neuronal deletion of Gtf2i results in developmental microglial alterations in a mouse model related to Williams syndrome.

Williams syndrome (WS) is a genetic neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a heterozygous microdeletion, characterized by hypersociability and unique neurocognitive abnormalities. Of the deleted genes, GTF2I has been linked to hypersociability in WS. We have recently shown that Gtf2i deletion from forebrain excitatory neurons, referred to as Gtf2i conditional knockout (cKO) mice leads to multi-faceted myelination deficits associated with the social behaviors affected in WS. These deficits were potentially mediated also by microglia, as they present a close relationship with oligodendrocytes. To study the impact of altered myelination, we characterized these mice in terms of microglia over the course of development. In postnatal day 30 (P30) Gtf2i cKO mice, cortical microglia displayed a more ramified state, as compared with wild type (controls). However, postnatal day 4 (P4) microglia exhibited high proliferation rates and an elevated activation state, demonstrating altered properties related to activation and inflammation in Gtf2i cKO mice compared with control. Intriguingly, P4 Gtf2i cKO-derived microglial cells exhibited significantly elevated myelin phagocytosis in vitro compared to control mice. Lastly, systemic injection of clemastine to P4 Gtf2i cKO and control mice until P30, led to a significant interaction between genotypes and treatments on the expression levels of the phagocytic marker CD68, and a significant reduction of the macrophage/microglial marker Iba1 transcript levels in the cortex of the Gtf2i cKO treated mice. Our data thus implicate microglia as important players in WS, and that early postnatal manipulation of microglia might be beneficial in treating inflammatory and myelin-related pathologies.

Vitamin D and S-farnesylthiosalicylic acid have a synergistic effect on hepatic stellate cells proliferation.

BACKGROUND: Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) have a key role in the formation of hepatic fibrosis. The active form of vitamin D, 1,25(OH)2D3, has been found to have antiproliferative and antifibrotic effects in various tissues including liver. Farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS), a novel Ras antagonist, was also found to inhibit hepatic fibrosis. AIMS: The purpose of this study was to examine the antiproliferative and antifibrotic effects of the combined treatment of 1,25(OH)2D3 and FTS on primary cultured HSCs. METHODS: Primary HSCs, isolated from rat's livers, were treated with 1,25(OH)2D3, FTS or a combination of both. Proliferation was assessed by bromodeoxyuridine. Expression of p-ERK, ERK, Ras-GTP, total-Ras, CyclinD1 and fibrotic markers was measured by western blotting analysis and real-time PCR. Cytotoxicity was assessed by lactate dehydrogenase method. RESULTS: The combined treatment inhibited HSCs proliferation by threefold. The effect was synergistic and non-cytotoxic. In concordance, the combined treatment suppressed CyclinD1 expression by ~2-fold, whereas 1,25(OH)2D3 or FTS alone showed a significantly lower inhibitory effect. The effect of the combined treatment on CyclinD1 expression was mediated via Ras-GTP and p-ERK signal transduction pathway. The effect on fibrotic markers showed that 1,25(OH)2D3 decreased collagen Iα1 expression by ~40%, FTS by ~50% and the combined treatment by ~60%. 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibited tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) expression by 20%. FTS alone or 1,25(OH)2D3 + FTS inhibited TIMP-1 expression by 60%. FTS inhibited transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) expression by 25%, while 1,25(OH)2D3 had no effect. CONCLUSION: Although the combination of 1,25(OH)2D3 and FTS did not demonstrate an additive antifibrotic effect, it showed a synergistic antiproliferative effect on primary HSCs. Therefore, the combined treatment may have a potential therapeutic value in the initiation of fibrotic process.

Deletion of Gtf2i via Systemic Administration of AAV-PHP.eB Virus Increases Social Behavior in a Mouse Model of a Neurodevelopmental Disorder.

Williams syndrome (WS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by distinctive cognitive and personality profiles which also impacts various physiological systems. The syndrome arises from the deletion of about 25 genes located on chromosome 7q11.23, including Gtf2i. Prior research indicated a strong association between pre-natal Gtf2i deletion, and the hyper-social phenotypes observed in WS, as well as myelination deficits. As most studies addressed pre-natal Gtf2i deletion in mouse models, post-natal neuronal roles of Gtf2i were unknown. To investigate the impact of post-natal deletion of neuronal Gtf2i on hyper-sociability, we intravenously injected an AAV-PHP.eB virus expressing Cre-recombinase under the control of αCaMKII, a promoter in a mouse model with floxed Gtf2i. This targeted deletion was performed in young mice, allowing for precise and efficient brain-wide infection leading to the exclusive removal of Gtf2i from excitatory neurons. As a result of such gene deletion, the mice displayed hyper-sociability, increased anxiety, impaired cognition, and hyper-mobility, relative to controls. These findings highlight the potential of systemic viral manipulation as a gene-editing technique to modulate behavior-regulating genes during the post-natal stage, thus presenting novel therapeutic approaches for addressing neurodevelopmental dysfunction.

Neuronal Gtf2i deletion alters mitochondrial and autophagic properties.

Gtf2i encodes the general transcription factor II-I (TFII-I), with peak expression during pre-natal and early post-natal brain development stages. Because these stages are critical for proper brain development, we studied at the single-cell level the consequences of Gtf2i's deletion from excitatory neurons, specifically on mitochondria. Here we show that Gtf2i's deletion resulted in abnormal morphology, disrupted mRNA related to mitochondrial fission and fusion, and altered autophagy/mitophagy protein expression. These changes align with elevated reactive oxygen species levels, illuminating Gtf2i's importance in neurons mitochondrial function. Similar mitochondrial issues were demonstrated by Gtf2i heterozygous model, mirroring the human condition in Williams syndrome (WS), and by hemizygous neuronal Gtf2i deletion model, indicating Gtf2i's dosage-sensitive role in mitochondrial regulation. Clinically relevant, we observed altered transcript levels related to mitochondria, hypoxia, and autophagy in frontal cortex tissue from WS individuals. Our study reveals mitochondrial and autophagy-related deficits shedding light on WS and other Gtf2i-related disorders.

Prevention of induced colitis in mice by the ras antagonist farnesylthiosalicylic acid.

BACKGROUND: Ras proteins are crucial for cell differentiation and proliferation. Targeting Ras with farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS), a Ras antagonist, has been suggested as a therapeutic strategy in proliferative and inflammatory diseases. AIMS: To examine the role of Ras and the therapeutic potential of FTS in experimental colitis. METHODS: Colitis was induced in 26 mice by adding 2.5% dextran sodium sulfate to their drinking water for 7 days during which 12 study mice were treated with FTS and 14 control mice were given normal saline. Two additional controls included 10 naïve mice treated with FTS and 7 naïve non-treated mice. The animals were followed clinically and sacrificed after 7 days. Their colons were isolated for histological assessment and for measurement of myeloperoxidase activity (MPO), tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF-α), and interleukin-1ß(Il-1ß) levels. Ras and activated Ras expression was determined by immunoblotting assays. T cell populations in the colon and spleen were analyzed by flow-cytometry. RESULTS: FTS induced a 2.1-fold reduction in activated Ras levels (P < 0.004). FTS-treated mice had lower disease activity scores (3.9 ± 1.7 vs. 7.5 ± 2.3, P < 0.001), and lower levels of MPO activity (1.65 ± 0.6 vs. 2.6 ± 0.8 units/g, P < 0.007), Il-1ß (2.4 ± 3.6 vs. 24.3 ± 17.5 pg/mg, P < 0.01) and TNF-α (0.63 ± 0.5 vs. 1.9 ± 1 pg/mg, P < 0.04). FTS increased regulatory T cell population in the spleen (1.9 ± 0.4-fold, P < 0.04), and decreased effector T cell populations in the colon and spleen by 24 ± 3% (P < 0.03) and 27 ± 1% (P < 0.02), respectively. FTS had no remarkable side effects. CONCLUSIONS: Ras is involved in the inflammatory processes of induced colitis in mice and its inhibition by FTS ameliorates the severity of the inflammation.

Inhibition of Ras GTPases prevents Collagen-Induced Arthritis by Reducing the Generation of Pathogenic CD4+ T Cells and the Hyposialylation of Autoantibodies.

OBJECTIVE: RasGTPases are master regulators of multiple intracellular signaling cascades. Perturbation of this pathway has been implicated in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this study we aimed to define the therapeutic potential of a novel RasGTPases inhibitor, farnesylthiosalicylate (FTS), in the preclinical mouse model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and better delineate its immunomodulatory effects both ex vivo and in the mouse. METHODS: We analyzed in vitro the immunomodulatory effects of FTS on various CD4+ T-cell functions such as activation, proliferation, T-helper polarization, and production of proinflammatory cytokines. Using the CIA model, we further determined the efficacy of FTS to inhibit clinical, histopathologic, and diverse immunological outcomes of arthritis. RESULTS: FTS treatment of CD4+ T cells in vitro effectively targeted distinct kinases (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, p38, protein kinase B/AKT, and mammalian target of rapamycin), the production of interleukin (IL)-17A, IL-22, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and Th17 polarization. FTS therapy in the mouse CIA model significantly reduced clinical disease severity and joint inflammation/damage by histology. Importantly, FTS suppressed the in vivo induction of splenic IL-17+ IL-22+ Th17 cells and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. The production of pathogenic autoantibodies and their abnormal hyposialylation was significantly attenuated by FTS therapy. Importantly, in vivo generation of collagen type-II specific effector CD4+ T cells was likewise repressed by FTS therapy. CONCLUSION: The RasGTPases inhibitor FTS attenuates the production of proinflammatory cytokines by in vitro-activated T cells and is a potent immunomodulatory compound in the CIA model, primarily targeting the generation of autoreactive Th17 cells and the production of autoantibodies and their subsequent pathogenic hyposialylation.

Galectin-3/MAC-2, Ras and PI3K activate complement receptor-3 and scavenger receptor-AI/II mediated myelin phagocytosis in microglia.

The removal of degenerated myelin is essential for repair in Wallerian degeneration that follows traumatic injury to axons and in autoimmune demyelinating diseases (e.g., multiple sclerosis). Microglia can remove degenerated myelin through phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)-dependent phagocytosis mediated by complement receptor-3 (CR3/MAC-1) and scavenger receptor-AI/II (SRAI/II). Paradoxically, these receptors are expressed in microglia after injury but myelin is not phagocytosed. Additionally, Galectin-3/MAC-2 is expressed in microglia that phagocytose but not in microglia that do not phagocytose, suggesting that Galectin-3/MAC-2 is instrumental in activating phagocytosis. S-trans, trans-farnesylthiosalicylic (FTS), which inhibits Galectin-3/MAC-2 dependent activation of PI3K through Ras, inhibited phagocytosis. K-Ras-GTP levels and PI3K activity increased during normal phagocytosis and decreased during FTS-inhibited phagocytosis. Galectin-3/MAC-2, which binds and stabilizes active Ras, coimmunoprecipitated with Ras and levels of the coimmunoprecipitate increased during normal phagocytosis. A role for Galectin-3/MAC-2 dependent activation of PI3K through Ras, mostly K-Ras, is thus suggested. An explanation may thus be offered for deficient phagocytosis by microglia that express CR3/MAC-1 and SRAI/II without Galectin-3/MAC-2 and efficient phagocytosis when CR3/MAC-1 and SRAI/II are co-expressed with Galectin-3/MAC-2.

Orally administered FTS (salirasib) inhibits human pancreatic tumor growth in nude mice.

BACKGROUND: S-trans,trans-farnesylthiosalicylic acid (salirasib, FTS) is a synthetic small molecule that acts as a potent Ras inhibitor. Salirasib inhibits specifically both oncogenically activated Ras and growth factor receptor-mediated Ras activation, resulting in the inhibition of Ras-dependent tumor growth. The objectives of this study were to develop a sensitive LC-MS/MS assay for determination of FTS in plasma, to assess the bioavailabilty of FTS after oral administration to mice, and then to examine the efficacy of orally administered FTS for inhibition of tumor growth in a nude mouse model. METHODS: FTS was isolated from mouse plasma by liquid chromatography on a Columbus 5-mum particle size, 50 x 2 mm id column with a methanol/5 mM ammonium acetate (80/20) mobile phase (isocratic elution) at a flow rate of 0.3 ml/min. MS/MS was performed on a PE Sciex API 365 with Turbo Ion Spray as interface and negative ion ionization; parent ion (m/z): 357.2; daughter ion (m/z) 153.2; retention time 2.3 min. For plasma analysis, the amount of analyte in each sample was calculated by comparing response of the analyte in that sample to a nine-point standard curve linear over the range 3-1000 ng/ml. Pharmacokinetic studies were performed in mice following intraperitoneal dosing (20 mk/kg in PBS) or oral dosing (40 mg/kg in either 0.5% aqueous CMC or corn oil). Panc-1 tumor growth in nude mice was determined following daily oral dosing with FTS in 0.5% CMC (40, 60, or 80 mg/kg), or in combination with weekly gemcitabine (30 mg/kg). RESULTS: Salirasib was readily detected in mouse plasma by LC-MS/MS at a detection limit of 3 ng/ml. For each route of administration, t (max) was 1 h and t (1/2) ranged from 1.86 to 2.66 h. Compared to IP administration, the oral bioavailabilty of FTS was 69.5% for oral CMC and 55% for oral corn oil suspensions, while clearance and volume of distribution were higher in both oral preparations. The orally administered salirasib inhibited panc-1 tumor growth in a dose dependent manner (67% reduction in tumor weight at the highest dose, P < 0.002 vs. control, n = 10 mice per group) and at a 40 mg/kg daily dose was synergistic with gemcitabine (83% increase in survival rate, n = 8 mice per group). CONCLUSIONS: Salirasib exhibits good bioavailabilty after oral administration, as determined by a highly sensitive method for quantification in plasma. The orally available Ras inhibitor salirasib inhibited growth in nude mice, and may thus be considered for clinical trials.

Suppression of lung cancer tumor growth in a nude mouse model by the Ras inhibitor salirasib (farnesylthiosalicylic acid).

Aberrant Ras pathway functions contribute to the malignant phenotype of lung cancers. Inhibitors of Ras might therefore be considered as potential drugs for lung cancer therapy. Here, we show that the Ras inhibitor farnesylthiosalicylic acid (salirasib) inhibits proliferation of human lung cancer cells harboring a mutated K-ras gene (A549, H23, or HTB54) or overexpressing a growth factor receptor (H1299 or HTB58) and enhances the cytotoxic effect of the chemotherapeutic drug gemcitabine. Salirasib inhibited active K-Ras in A549 cells, reversed their transformed morphology, and inhibited their anchorage-independent growth in vitro. Tumor growth in A549 and HTB58 cell nude mouse models was inhibited by i.p. administration of salirasib. P.o. formulated salirasib also inhibited A549 cell tumor growth. Our results suggest that p.o. salirasib may be considered as a potential treatment for lung cancer therapy.

Ras Signaling Inhibitors Attenuate Disease in Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis via Targeting Pathogenic Antigen-Specific Th17-Type Cells.

The Ras family of GTPases plays an important role in signaling nodes downstream to T cell receptor and CD28 activation, potentially lowering the threshold for T-cell receptor activation by autoantigens. Somatic mutation in NRAS or KRAS may cause a rare autoimmune disorder coupled with abnormal expansion of lymphocytes. T cells from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients show excessive activation of Ras/MEK/ERK pathway. The small molecule farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS) interferes with the interaction between Ras GTPases and their prenyl-binding chaperones to inhibit proper plasma membrane localization. In the present study, we tested the therapeutic and immunomodulatory effects of FTS and its derivative 5-fluoro-FTS (F-FTS) in the rat adjuvant-induced arthritis model (AIA). We show that AIA severity was significantly reduced by oral FTS and F-FTS treatment compared to vehicle control treatment. FTS was as effective as the mainstay anti-rheumatic drug methotrexate, and combining the two drugs significantly increased efficacy compared to each drug alone. We also discovered that FTS therapy inhibited both the CFA-driven in vivo induction of Th17 and IL-17/IFN-γ producing "double positive" as well as the upregulation of serum levels of the Th17-associated cytokines IL-17A and IL-22. By gene microarray analysis of effector CD4+ T cells from CFA-immunized rats, re-stimulated in vitro with the mycobacterium tuberculosis heat-shock protein 65 (Bhsp65), we determined that FTS abrogated the Bhsp65-induced transcription of a large list of genes (e.g., Il17a/f, Il22, Ifng, Csf2, Lta, and Il1a). The functional enrichment bioinformatics analysis showed significant overlap with predefined gene sets related to inflammation, immune system processes and autoimmunity. In conclusion, FTS and F-FTS display broad immunomodulatory effects in AIA with inhibition of the Th17-type response to a dominant arthritogenic antigen. Hence, targeting Ras signal-transduction cascade is a potential novel therapeutic approach for RA.

Inhibition of intimal thickening in the rat carotid artery injury model by a nontoxic Ras inhibitor.

BACKGROUND: Neointimal formation with and without previous vascular injury is common after balloon dilation and in transplant arteriosclerosis. It involves proliferation and migration of medial smooth muscle cells and inflammation, processes that are regulated by Ras proteins and their down-stream effectors. Farnesylthiosalicylate (FTS) is a Ras inhibitor that interferes with Ras membrane anchorage and affects Ras proteins in their active state. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that systemic administration of FTS will suppress intimal thickening in the rat carotid injury model. METHODS AND RESULTS: The effects of FTS on rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and splenocytes proliferation were evaluated in vitro. The in vivo effects of FTS on the neointima of balloon-injured male Wistar rats, treated daily for 2 weeks with FTS (5 mg/kg weight, intraperitoneally) were evaluated by determination of Ras, Ras-GTP, and active ERK levels (3 days after injury), and by quantitative determination of the extent of intimal thickening and immunohistochemistry for Ras, iNOS, NFkB, and Ki-67 (2 weeks after injury). FTS inhibited VSMC and splenocyte proliferation as well as interferon-gamma secretion by splenocytes in a dose-dependent manner. Compared with controls, FTS treatment resulted in a strong decrease in Ras-GTP and active ERK, and it significantly reduced intimal thickening after the injury. Ras expression appeared predominantly at areas of neointima regardless of the treatment group. NFkB and iNOS-positive cell numbers were reduced in sections of FTS treated rats. CONCLUSIONS: FTS appears to act as a potent inhibitor of intimal thickening in a model of experimental arterial injury.

The association between let-7, RAS and HIF-1α in Ewing Sarcoma tumor growth.

Ewing Sarcoma (ES) is the second most common primary malignant bone tumor in children and adolescents. microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in cancer as tumor suppressors or oncogenes. We studied the involvement of miRNAs located on chromosomes 11q and 22q that participate in the most common translocation in ES. Of these, we focused on 3 that belong to the let-7 family.We studied the expression levels of let-7a, and let-7b and detected a significant correlation between low expression of let-7b and increased risk of relapse. let-7 is known to be a negative regulator of the RAS oncogene. Indeed, we detected an inverse association between the expression of let-7 and RAS protein levels and its downstream target p-ERK, following transfection of let-7 mimics and inhibitors. Furthermore, we identified let-7 as a negative regulator of HIF-1α and EWS-FLI-1. Moreover, we were able to show that HIF-1α directly binds to the EWS-FLI-1 promoter. Salirasib treatment in-vitro resulted in the reduction of cell viability, migration ability, and in the decrease of cells in S-phase. A significant reduction in tumor burden and in the expression levels of both HIF-1α and EWS-FLI-1 proteins were observed in mice after treatment.Our results support the hypothesis that let-7 is a tumor suppressor that negatively regulates RAS, also in ES, and that HIF-1α may contribute to the aggressive metastatic behavior of ES. Moreover, the reduction in the tumor burden in a mouse model of ES following Salirasib treatment, suggests therapeutic potential for this RAS inhibitor in ES.

The Ras inhibitor S-trans, trans-farnesylthiosalicylic acid exerts long-lasting neuroprotection in a mouse closed head injury model.

Traumatic brain injury activates N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) inducing activation of the Ras protein (a key regulator of cell growth, survival, and death) and its effectors. Thus, trauma-induced increase in active Ras-GTP might contribute to traumatic brain injury pathology. Based on this hypothesis, a new concept of neuroprotection is proposed, examined here by investigating the effect of the Ras inhibitor S-trans, trans-farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS) in a mouse model of closed head injury (CHI). Mice subjected to CHI were treated systemically 1 h later with FTS (5 mg/kg) or vehicle. After 1 h, Ras-GTP in the contused hemisphere showed a significant (3.8-fold) increase, which was strongly inhibited by FTS (82% inhibition) or by the NMDA-receptor antagonist MK-801 (53%). Both drugs also decreased active (phosphorylated) extracellular signal-regulated kinase. FTS prevented the CHI-induced reduction in NMDAR binding in cortical, striatal, and hippocampal regions, measured by [3H]-MK-801 autoradiography, and decreased lesion size by 50%. It also reduced CHI-induced neurologic deficits, indicated by the highly significant (P < 0.0001) 60% increase in extent of recovery. Thus, FTS provided long-term neuroprotection after CHI, rescuing NMDAR binding in the contused hemisphere and profoundly reducing neurologic deficits. These findings suggest that nontoxic Ras inhibitors such as FTS may qualify as neuroprotective drugs.

Chloroquine synergizes with FTS to enhance cell growth inhibition and cell death.

The Ras family of small GTPases transmits extracellular signals that regulate cell growth, differentiation, motility and death. Ras signaling is constitutively active in a large number of human cancers. Ras can also regulate autophagy by affecting several signaling pathways including the mTOR pathway. Autophagy is a process that regulates the balance between protein synthesis and protein degradation. It is important for normal growth control, but may be defective in diseases. Previously, we have shown that Ras inhibition by FTS induces autophagy, which partially protects cancer cells and may limit the use of FTS as an anti-cancer drug. Since FTS is a non toxic drug we hypothesized that FTS and chloroquine (an autophagy inhibitor) will synergize in cell growth inhibition and cell death. Thus, in the present study, we explored the mechanism of each individual drug and their combined action. Our results demonstrate that in HCT-116 and in Panc-1 cells, FTS induces autophagy, which can be inhibited by chloroquine. Furthermore, the combined treatment synergistically decreased the number of viable cells. Interestingly, the combined treatment enhanced apoptotic cell death as indicated by increased sub-G1 cell population, increased Hoechst staining, activation of caspase 3, decrease in survivin expression and release of cytochrome c. Thus, chloroquine treatment may promote FTS-mediated inhibition of tumor cell growth and may stimulate apoptotic cell death.

Ras chaperones: new targets for cancer and immunotherapy.

The Ras inhibitor S-trans,trans-farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS, Salirasib®) interferes with Ras membrane interactions that are crucial for Ras-dependent signaling and cellular transformation. FTS had been successfully evaluated in clinical trials of cancer patients. Interestingly, its effect is mediated by targeting Ras chaperones that serve as key coordinators for Ras proper folding and delivery, thus offering a novel target for cancer therapy. The development of new FTS analogs has revealed that the specific modifications to the FTS carboxyl group by esterification and amidation yielded compounds with improved growth inhibitory activity. When FTS was combined with additional therapeutic agents its activity toward Ras was significantly augmented. FTS should be tested not only in cancer but also for genetic diseases associated with abnormal Ras signaling, as well as for various inflammatory and autoimmune disturbances, where Ras plays a major role. We conclude that FTS has a great potential both as a safe anticancer drug and as a promising immune modulator agent.

Computer-based identification of a novel LIMK1/2 inhibitor that synergizes with salirasib to destabilize the actin cytoskeleton.

Neurofibromin regulates cell motility via three distinct GTPase pathways acting through two different domains, the Ras GTPase-activating protein-related domain (GRD) and the pre-GRD domain. First, the GRD domain inhibits Ras-dependent changes in cell motility through the mitogen activated protein cascade. Second, it also regulates Rho-dependent (Ras-independent) changes by activating LIM kinase 2 (LIMK2), an enzyme that phosphorylates and inactivates cofilin (an actin-depolymerizing factor). Third, the pre-GRD domain acts through the Rac1 GTPase, that activate the P21 activated kinase 1 (PAK1)-LIMK1-cofilin pathway. We employed molecular modeling to identify a novel inhibitor of LIMK1/2. The active sites of an ephrin-A receptor (EphA3) and LIMK2 showed marked similarity (60%). On testing a known inhibitor of EphA3, we found that it fits to the LIMK1/2-ATP binding site and to the latter's substrate-binding pockets. We identified a similar compound, T56-LIMKi, and found that it inhibits LIMK1/2 kinase activities. It blocked the phosphorylation of cofilin which led to actin severance and inhibition of tumor cell migration, tumor cell growth, and anchorage-independent colony formation in soft agar. Because modulation of LIMK by neurofibromin is not affected by the Ras inhibitor Salirasib, we examined the combined effect of Salirasib and T56-LIMKi each of which can affect cell motility by a distinct pathway. We found that their combined action on cell proliferation and stress-fiber formation in neurofibromin-deficient cells was synergistic. We suggest that this drug combination may be developed for treatment of neurofibromatosis and cancer.

Oncogenic synergism between ErbB1, nucleolin, and mutant Ras.

Alterations in the ErbB family of growth factor receptors, their signaling components, and mutational activation of Ras proteins are major contributors to malignant transformation. Recently, mutant Ras was shown to be capable of activating ErbB receptors in a ligand-independent manner. Furthermore, it was observed that nucleolin, a transcriptional regulator and ribosome biogenesis factor, can bind both K-Ras and the cytoplasmic tail of ErbB receptors to enhance ErbB receptor activation. However, the functional significance of these interactions to cancer pathogenesis has not been probed. Here, we show that endogenous nucleolin interacts simultaneously in vivo with endogenous Ras and ErbB1 (EGFR) in cancer cells. The C-terminal 212 amino acids of nucleolin were determined to be sufficient to interact with ErbB1 and all Ras protein isoforms (H-, N-, and K-Ras). Nucleolin partially colocalizes with Ras at the plasma membrane. Moreover, activated but not wild-type Ras facilitates nucleolin interaction with ErbB1 and stabilizes ErbB1 receptor levels. Most importantly, these three oncogenes synergistically facilitate anchorage-independent cell growth in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. Our findings suggest strategies to target nucleolin as a general approach to inhibiting ErbB- and Ras-driven cancers.

The Ras antagonist, farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS), decreases fibrosis and improves muscle strength in dy/dy mouse model of muscular dystrophy.

The Ras superfamily of guanosine-triphosphate (GTP)-binding proteins regulates a diverse spectrum of intracellular processes involved in inflammation and fibrosis. Farnesythiosalicylic acid (FTS) is a unique and potent Ras inhibitor which decreased inflammation and fibrosis in experimentally induced liver cirrhosis and ameliorated inflammatory processes in systemic lupus erythematosus, neuritis and nephritis animal models. FTS effect on Ras expression and activity, muscle strength and fibrosis was evaluated in the dy(2J)/dy(2J) mouse model of merosin deficient congenital muscular dystrophy. The dy(2J)/dy(2J) mice had significantly increased RAS expression and activity compared with the wild type mice. FTS treatment significantly decreased RAS expression and activity. In addition, phosphorylation of ERK, a Ras downstream protein, was significantly decreased following FTS treatment in the dy(2J)/dy(2J) mice. Clinically, FTS treated mice showed significant improvement in hind limb muscle strength measured by electronic grip strength meter. Significant reduction of fibrosis was demonstrated in the treated group by quantitative Sirius Red staining and lower muscle collagen content. FTS effect was associated with significantly inhibition of both MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities. We conclude that active RAS inhibition by FTS was associated with attenuated fibrosis and improved muscle strength in the dy(2J)/dy(2J) mouse model of congenital muscular dystrophy.

Spatiotemporal organization of Ras signaling: rasosomes and the galectin switch.

1. Ras signaling and oncogenesis depend on the dynamic interplay of Ras with distinctive plasma membrane (PM) microdomains and various intracellular compartments. Such interaction is dictated by individual elements in the carboxy-terminal domain of the Ras proteins, including a farnesyl isoprenoid group, sequences in the hypervariable region (hvr)-linker, and palmitoyl groups in H/N-Ras isoforms. 2. The farnesyl group acts as a specific recognition unit that interacts with prenyl-binding pockets in galectin-1 (Gal-1), galectin-3 (Gal-3), and cGMP phosphodiesterase delta. This interaction appears to contribute to the prolongation of Ras signals in the PM, the determination of Ras effector usage, and perhaps also the transport of cytoplasmic Ras. Gal-1 promotes H-Ras signaling to Raf at the expense of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-K) and Ral guanine nucleotide exchange factor (RalGEF), while galectin-3 promotes K-Ras signaling to both Raf and PI3-K. 3. The hvr-linker and the palmitates of H-Ras and N-Ras determine the micro- and macro-localizations of these proteins in the PM and in the Golgi, as well as in 'rasosomes', randomly moving nanoparticles that carry palmitoylated Ras proteins and their signal through the cytoplasm.4. The dynamic compartmentalization of Ras proteins contributes to the spatial organization of Ras signaling, promotes redistribution of Ras, and provides an additional level of selectivity to the signal output of this regulatory GTPase.