Unraveling the miRNA Puzzle in Atherosclerosis: Revolutionizing Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapeutic Approaches.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To eradicate atherosclerotic diseases, novel biomarkers, and future therapy targets must reveal the burden of early atherosclerosis (AS), which occurs before life-threatening unstable plaques form. The chemical and biological features of microRNAs (miRNAs) make them interesting biomarkers for numerous diseases. We summarized the latest research on miRNA regulatory mechanisms in AS progression studies, which may help us use miRNAs as biomarkers and treatments for difficult-to-treat diseases. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent research has demonstrated that miRNAs have a regulatory function in the observed changes in gene and protein expression during atherogenesis, the process that leads to atherosclerosis. Several miRNAs play a role in the development of atherosclerosis, and these miRNAs could potentially serve as non-invasive biomarkers for atherosclerosis in various regions of the body. These miRNAs have the potential to serve as biomarkers and targets for early treatment of atherosclerosis. The start and development of AS require different miRNAs. It reviews new research on miRNAs affecting endothelium, vascular smooth muscle, vascular inflammation, lipid retention, and cholesterol metabolism in AS. A miRNA gene expression profile circulates with AS everywhere. AS therapies include lipid metabolism, inflammation reduction, and oxidative stress inhibition. Clinical use of miRNAs requires tremendous progress. We think tiny miRNAs can enable personalized treatment.

miRNAs as modulators of neuroinflammation and excitotoxicity: Implications for stroke therapeutics.

Stroke is a widespread neurological disorder associated with physical disabilities, mortality, and economic burden. In recent decades, substantial progress has been achieved in reducing the impact of this public health problem. However, further understanding of the pathophysiology of stroke and the underlying genetic pathways is required. The pathological mechanisms of stroke comprise multifaceted molecular cascades regulated by various microRNAs (miRNAs). An increasing number of studies have highlighted the role of miRNAs, which have received much attention during the last decades as an important class of post-transcriptional regulators. It was shown that miRNAs exert their role in the etiology of stroke via mediating excitotoxicity and neuroinflammation. Additionally, miRNAs could be helpful as non-invasive or minimally invasive biomarkers and therapeutic agents. Thus, the current review focused on the interplay of these miRNAs in stroke pathology to upgrade the existing therapeutic strategies.

Unraveling the role of miRNAs in the diagnosis, progression, and therapeutic intervention of Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a debilitating neurological disorder characterized by the impairment of the motor system, resulting in symptoms such as resting tremor, cogwheel rigidity, bradykinesia, difficulty with gait, and postural instability. The occurrence of striatal dopamine insufficiency can be attributed to a notable decline in dopaminergic neurons inside the substantia nigra pars compacta. Additionally, the development of Lewy bodies serves as a pathological hallmark of PD. While current therapy approaches for PD aim to preserve dopaminergic neurons or replenish dopamine levels in the brain, it is important to acknowledge that achieving complete remission of the condition remains elusive. MicroRNAs (miRNAs, miR) are a class of small, non-coding ribonucleic acids involved in regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. The miRNAs play a crucial part in the underlying pathogenic mechanisms of several neurodegenerative illnesses, including PD. The aim of this review is to explore the role of miRNAs in regulating genes associated with the onset and progression of PD, investigate the potential of miRNAs as a diagnostic tool, assess the effectiveness of targeting specific miRNAs as an alternative therapeutic strategy to impede disease advancement, and discuss the utilization of newly developed nanoparticles for delivering miRNAs as neurodegenerative therapies.

Unraveling the role of miRNAs in the diagnosis, progression, and therapeutic intervention of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifaceted, advancing neurodegenerative illness that is responsible for most cases of neurological impairment and dementia in the aged population. As the disease progresses, affected individuals may experience cognitive decline, linguistic problems, affective instability, and behavioral changes. The intricate nature of AD reflects the altered molecular mechanisms participating in the affected human brain. MicroRNAs (miRNAs, miR) are essential for the intricate control of gene expression in neurobiology. miRNAs exert their influence by modulating the transcriptome of brain cells, which typically exhibit substantial genetic activity, encompassing gene transcription and mRNA production. Presently, comprehensive studies are being conducted on AD to identify miRNA-based signatures that are indicative of the disease pathophysiology. These findings can contribute to the advancement of our understanding of the mechanisms underlying this disorder and can inform the development of therapeutic interventions based on miRNA and related RNA molecules. Therefore, this comprehensive review provides a detailed holistic analysis of the latest advances discussing the emerging role of miRNAs in the progression of AD and their possible application as potential biomarkers and targets for therapeutic interventions in future studies.

From diagnosis to resistance: a symphony of miRNAs in pheochromocytoma progression and treatment response.

Pheochromocytoma (PCC) is a neuroendocrine tumor that produces and secretes catecholamine from either the adrenal medulla or extra-adrenal locations. MicroRNAs (miRNAs, miR) can be used as biomarkers to detect cancer or the return of a previously treated disease. Blood-borne miRNAs might be envisioned as noninvasive markers of malignancy or prognosis, and new studies demonstrate that microRNAs are released in body fluids as well as tissues. MiRNAs have the potential to be therapeutic targets, which would greatly increase the restricted therapy options for adrenal tumors. This article aims to consolidate and synthesize the most recent studies on miRNAs in PCC, discussing their potential clinical utility as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers while also addressing their limitations.

Unveiling the regulatory role of miRNAs in stroke pathophysiology and diagnosis.

Stroke, a major global cause of mortality, leads to a range of problems for those who survive. Besides its brutal events, stroke also tends to have a characteristic of recurrence, making it a complex disease involving intricate regulatory networks. One of the major cellular regulators is the non-coding RNAs (ncRNA), specifically microRNAs (miRNAs), thus the possible functions of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of stroke are discussed as well as the possibility of using miRNA-based therapeutic approaches. Firstly, the molecular mechanisms by which miRNAs regulate vital physiological processes, including synaptic plasticity, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are reviewed. The miRNA indirectly impacts stroke outcomes by regulating BBB function and angiogenesis through the targeting of transcription factors and angiogenic factors. In addition, the tendency for some miRNAs to be upregulated in response to hypoxia, which is a prevalent phenomenon in stroke and various neurological disorders, highlights the possibility that it controls hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) signaling and angiogenesis, thereby influencing the integrity of the BBB as examples of the discussed mechanisms. Furthermore, this review explores the potential therapeutic targets that miRNAs may offer for stroke recovery and highlights their promising capacity to alleviate post-stroke complications. This review provides researchers and clinicians with valuable resources since it attempts to decipher the complex network of miRNA-mediated mechanisms in stroke. Additionally, the review addresses the interplay between miRNAs and stroke risk factors as well as clinical applications of miRNAs as diagnostic and prognostic markers.

Unraveling the role of miRNAs in the diagnosis, progression, and drug resistance of oral cancer.

Oral cancer (OC) is a widely observed neoplasm on a global scale. Over time, there has been an increase in both its fatality and incidence rates. Oral cancer metastasis is a complex process that involves a number of cellular mechanisms, including invasion, migration, proliferation, and escaping from malignant tissue through either lymphatic or vascular channels. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a crucial class of short non-coding RNAs recognized as significant modulators of diverse cellular processes and exert a pivotal influence on the carcinogenesis pathway, functioning either as tumor suppressors or as oncogenes. It has been shown that microRNAs (miRNAs) have a role in metastasis at several stages, including epithelial-mesenchymal transition, migration, invasion, and colonization. This regulation is achieved by targeting key genes involved in these pathways by miRNAs. This paper aims to give a contemporary analysis of OC, focusing on its molecular genetics. The current literature and emerging advancements in miRNA dysregulation in OC are thoroughly examined. This project would advance OC diagnosis, prognosis, therapy, and therapeutic implications.

The potential role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia - A focus on signaling pathways interplay.

microRNAs (miRNAs) play a crucial role in brain growth and function. Hence, research on miRNA has the potential to reveal much about the etiology of neuropsychiatric diseases. Among these, schizophrenia (SZ) is a highly intricate and destructive neuropsychiatric ailment that has been thoroughly researched in the field of miRNA. Despite being a relatively recent area of study about miRNAs and SZ, this discipline has advanced enough to justify numerous reviews that summarize the findings from the past to the present. However, most reviews cannot cover all research, thus it is necessary to synthesize the large range of publications on this topic systematically and understandably. Consequently, this review aimed to provide evidence that miRNAs play a role in the pathophysiology and progression of SZ. They have also been investigated for their potential use as biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Tuning into miRNAs: A comprehensive analysis of their impact on diagnosis, and progression in asthma.

Asthma is a diverse inflammatory illness affecting the respiratory passages, leading to breathing challenges, bouts of coughing and wheezing, and, in severe instances, significant deterioration in quality of life. Epigenetic regulation, which involves the control of gene expression through processes such as post-transcriptional modulation of microRNAs (miRNAs), plays a role in the evolution of various asthma subtypes. In immune-mediated diseases, miRNAs play a regulatory role in the behavior of cells that form the airway structure and those responsible for defense mechanisms in the bronchi and lungs. They control various cellular processes such as survival, growth, proliferation, and the production of chemokines and immune mediators. miRNAs possess chemical and biological characteristics that qualify them as suitable biomarkers for diseases. They allow for the categorization of patients to optimize drug selection, thus streamlining clinical management and decreasing both the economic burden and the necessity for critical care related to the disease. This study provides a concise overview of the functions of miRNAs in asthma and elucidates their regulatory effects on the underlying processes of the disease. We provide a detailed account of the present status of miRNAs as biomarkers for categorizing asthma, identifying specific asthma subtypes, and selecting appropriate treatment options.

The emerging role of miRNAs in epilepsy: From molecular signatures to diagnostic potential.

Epilepsy is a medical condition characterized by intermittent seizures accompanied by changes in consciousness. Epilepsy significantly impairs the daily functioning and overall well-being of affected individuals. Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures resulting from various dysfunctions in brain activity. The molecular processes underlying changes in neuronal structure, impaired apoptotic responses in neurons, and disruption of regenerative pathways in glial cells in epilepsy remain unknown. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a crucial role in regulating apoptosis, autophagy, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and the body's regenerative and immune responses. miRNAs have been shown to influence many pathogenic processes in epilepsy including inflammatory responses, neuronal necrosis and apoptosis, dendritic growth, synaptic remodeling, and other processes related to the development of epilepsy. Therefore, the purpose of our current analysis was to determine the role of miRNAs in the etiology and progression of epilepsy. Furthermore, they have been examined for their potential application as biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

The role of miRNAs in liver diseases: Potential therapeutic and clinical applications.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of short, non-coding RNAs that function post-transcriptionally to regulate gene expression by binding to particular mRNA targets and causing destruction of the mRNA or translational inhibition of the mRNA. The miRNAs control the range of liver activities, from the healthy to the unhealthy. Considering that miRNA dysregulation is linked to liver damage, fibrosis, and tumorigenesis, miRNAs are a promising therapeutic strategy for the evaluation and treatment of liver illnesses. Recent findings on the regulation and function of miRNAs in liver diseases are discussed, with an emphasis on miRNAs that are highly expressed or enriched in hepatocytes. Alcohol-related liver illness, acute liver toxicity, viral hepatitis, hepatocellular carcinoma, liver fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, and exosomes in chronic liver disease all emphasize the roles and target genes of these miRNAs. We briefly discuss the function of miRNAs in the etiology of liver diseases, namely in the transfer of information between hepatocytes and other cell types via extracellular vesicles. Here we offer some background on the use of miRNAs as biomarkers for the early prognosis, diagnosis, and assessment of liver diseases. The identification of biomarkers and therapeutic targets for liver disorders will be made possible by future research into miRNAs in the liver, which will also help us better understand the pathogeneses of liver diseases.

Long non-coding RNAs and rheumatoid arthritis: Pathogenesis and clinical implications.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of noncoding RNAs with a length larger than 200 nucleotides that participate in various diseases and biological processes as they can control gene expression by different mechanisms. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an inflammatory autoimmune disorder characterized by symmetrical destructive destruction of distal joints as well as extra-articular involvement. Different studies have documented and proven the abnormal expression of lncRNAs in RA patients. Various lncRNAs have proven potential as biomarkers and targets for diagnosing, prognosis and treating RA. This review will focus on RA pathogenesis, clinical implications, and related lncRNA expressions that help to identify new biomarkers and treatment targets.

An emphasis on the interaction of signaling pathways highlights the role of miRNAs in the etiology and treatment resistance of gastric cancer.

Gastric cancer (GC) is 4th in incidence and mortality rates globally. Several genetic and epigenetic factors, including microRNAs (miRNAs), affect its initiation and progression. miRNAs are short chains of nucleic acids that can regulate several cellular processes by controlling their gene expression. So, dysregulation of miRNAs expressions is associated with GC initiation, progression, invasion capacity, apoptosis evasions, angiogenesis, promotion and EMT enhancement. Of important pathways in GC and controlled by miRNAs are Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, HMGA2/mTOR/P-gp, PI3K/AKT/c-Myc, VEGFR and TGFb signaling. Hence, this review was conducted to review an updated view of the role of miRNAs in GC pathogenesis and their modulatory effects on responses to different GC treatment modalities.

The potential role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of gallbladder cancer - A focus on signaling pathways interplay.

microRNAs (also known as miRNAs or miRs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs that play a critical role in post-transcriptional gene regulation as negative gene regulators by binding complementary sequences in the 3'-UTR of target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) leading to translational repression and/or target degradation a wide range of genes and biological processes, including cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and apoptosis. The development and progression of cancer have been linked to the anomalous expression of miRNAs. According to recent studies, miRNAs have been found to regulate the expression of cancer-related genes through multiple signaling pathways in gallbladder cancer (GBC). Besides, miRNAs are implicated in several modulatory signaling pathways of GBC, including the Notch signaling pathway, JAK/STAT signaling pathway, protein kinase B (AKT), and Hedgehog signaling pathway. This review summarizes our current knowledge of the functions of miRNAs in the mechanisms underlying the pathogenic symptoms of GBC and illustrates their potential significance as treatment targets.

The interplay between toxoplasmosis and host miRNAs: Mechanisms and consequences.

Toxoplasmosis is one of the highly prevalent zoonotic diseases worldwide caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). The infection with T. gondii could pass unidentified in immunocompetent individuals; however, latent cysts remain dormant in their digestive tract, but they could be shed and excreted with feces infesting the environment. However, active toxoplasmosis can create serious consequences, particularly in newborns and infected persons with compromised immunity. These complications include ocular toxoplasmosis, in which most cases cannot be treated. Additionally, it caused many stillbirths and miscarriages. Circulating miRNAs are important regulatory molecules ensuring that the normal physiological role of various organs is harmonious. Upon infection with T. gondii, the tightly regulated miRNA profile is disrupted to favor the parasite's survival and further participate in the disease pathogenesis. Interestingly, this dysregulated profile could be useful in acute and chronic disease discrimination and in providing insights into the pathomechanisms of the disease. Thus, this review sheds light on the various roles of miRNAs in signaling pathways regulation involved in the pathogenesis of T. gondii and provides insights into the application of miRNAs clinically for its diagnosis and prognosis.

The interplay of signaling pathways and miRNAs in the pathogenesis and targeted therapy of esophageal cancer.

Globally, esophageal cancer (EC) is the 6th leading cause of cancer-related deaths and the second deadliest gastrointestinal cancer. Multiple genetic and epigenetic factors, such as microRNAs (miRNAs), influence its onset and progression. miRNAs are short nucleic acid molecules that can regulate multiple cellular processes by regulating gene expression. Therefore, EC initiation, progression, apoptosis evasions, invasion capacity, promotion, angiogenesis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) enhancement are associated with miRNA expression dysregulation. Wnt/-catenin signaling, Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/P-gp, phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/c-Myc, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß signaling are crucial pathways in EC that are controlled by miRNAs. This review was conducted to provide an up-to-date assessment of the role of microRNAs in EC pathogenesis and their modulatory effects on responses to various EC treatment modalities.

miRNAs as potential game-changers in bone diseases: Future medicinal and clinical uses.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), short, highly conserved non-coding RNA, influence gene expression by sequential mechanisms such as mRNA breakdown or translational repression. Many biological processes depend on these regulating substances, thus changes in their expression have an impact on the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and result in the emergence of a variety of diseases. Relevant studies have shown in recent years that miRNAs are involved in many stages of bone development and growth. Additionally, abnormal production of miRNA in bone tissues has been closely associated with the development of numerous bone disorders, such as osteonecrosis, bone cancer, and bone metastases. Many pathological processes, including bone loss, metastasis, the proliferation of osteosarcoma cells, and differentiation of osteoblasts and osteoclasts, are under the control of miRNAs. By bringing together the most up-to-date information on the clinical relevance of miRNAs in such diseases, this study hopes to further the study of the biological features of miRNAs in bone disorders and explore their potential as a therapeutic target.

miRNAs as potential game-changers in renal cell carcinoma: Future clinical and medicinal uses.

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has the highest mortality rate of all genitourinary cancers, and its prevalence has grown over time. While RCC can be surgically treated and recurrence is only probable in a tiny proportion of patients, early diagnosis is crucial. Mutations in a large number of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes contribute to pathway dysregulation in RCC. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have considerable promise as biomarkers for detecting cancer due to their special combination of properties. Several miRNAs have been proposed as a diagnostic or monitoring tool for RCC based on their presence in the blood or urine. Moreover, the expression profile of particular miRNAs has been associated with the response to chemotherapy, immunotherapy, or targeted therapeutic options like sunitinib. The goal of this review is to go over the development, spread, and evolution of RCC. Also, we emphasize the outcomes of studies that examined the use of miRNAs in RCC patients as biomarkers, therapeutic targets, or modulators of responsiveness to treatment modalities.

miRNAs as potential game-changers in retinoblastoma: Future clinical and medicinal uses.

Retinoblastoma (RB) is a rare tumor in children, but it is the most common primitive intraocular malignancy in childhood age, especially those below three years old. The RB gene (RB1) undergoes mutations in individuals with RB. Although mortality rates remain high in developing countries, the survival rate for this type of cancer is greater than 95-98% in industrialized countries. However, it is lethal if left untreated, so early diagnosis is essential. As a non-coding RNA, miRNA significantly impacts RB development and treatment resistance because it can control various cellular functions. In this review, we illustrate the recent advances in the role of miRNAs in RB. That includes the clinical importance of miRNAs in RB diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Moreover, the regulatory mechanisms of miRNAs in RB and therapeutic interventions are discussed.

The potential role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of adrenocortical carcinoma - A focus on signaling pathways interplay.

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a highly malignant infrequent tumor with a dismal prognosis. microRNAs (miRNAs, miRs) are crucial in post-transcriptional gene expression regulation. Due to their ability to regulate multiple gene networks, miRNAs are central to the hallmarks of cancer, including sustained proliferative signaling, evasion of growth suppressors, resistance to cell death, replicative immortality, induction/access to the vasculature, activation of invasion and metastasis, reprogramming of cellular metabolism, and avoidance of immune destruction. ACC represents a singular form of neoplasia associated with aberrations in the expression of evolutionarily conserved short, non-coding RNAs. Recently, the role of miRNAs in ACC has been examined extensively despite the disease's rarity. Hence, the current review is a fast-intensive track elucidating the potential role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of ACC besides their association with the survival of ACC.