The Novel Phosphate and Bile Acid Sequestrant Polymer SAR442357 Delays Disease Progression in a Rat Model of Diabetic Nephropathy.

As a gut-restricted, nonabsorbed therapy, polymeric bile acid sequestrants (BAS) play an important role in managing hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia. Similarly, nonabsorbable sequestrants of dietary phosphate have been used for the management of hyperphosphatemia in end-stage renal disease. To evaluate the potential utility of such polymer sequestrants to treat type 2 diabetes (T2D) and its associated renal and cardiovascular complications, we synthesized a novel polymeric sequestrant, SAR442357, possessing optimized bile acid (BA) and phosphate sequestration characteristics. Long-term treatment of T2D obese cZucker fatty/Spontaneously hypertensive heart failure F1 hybrid (ZSF1) with SAR442357 resulted in enhanced sequestration of BAs and phosphate in the gut, improved glycemic control, lowering of serum cholesterol, and attenuation of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) progression. In comparison, colesevelam, a BAS with poor phosphate binding properties, did not prevent DKD progression, whereas losartan, an angiotensin II receptor blocker that is widely used to treat DKD, showed no effect on hyperglycemia. Analysis of hepatic gene expression levels of the animals treated with SAR442357 revealed upregulation of genes responsible for the biosynthesis of cholesterol and BAs, providing clear evidence of target engagement and mode of action of the new sequestrant. Additional hepatic gene expression pathway changes were indicative of an interruption of the enterohepatic BA cycle. Histopathological analysis of ZSF1 rat kidneys treated with SAR442357 further supported its nephroprotective properties. Collectively, these findings reveal the pharmacological benefit of simultaneous sequestration of BAs and phosphate in treating T2D and its associated comorbidities and cardiovascular complications. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A new nonabsorbed polymeric sequestrant with optimum phosphate and bile salt sequestration properties was developed as a treatment option for DKD. The new polymeric sequestrant offered combined pharmacological benefits including glucose regulation, lipid lowering, and attenuation of DKD progression in a single therapeutic agent.

Incretin combination therapy for the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.

AIMS: To test specific mono-agonists to the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R), glucagon receptor (GCGR) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide receptor (GIPR), individually and in combination, in a mouse model of diet-induced non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and fibrosis in order to decipher the contribution of their activities and potential additive effects to improving systemic and hepatic metabolism. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We induced NASH by pre-feeding C57BL/6J mice a diet rich in fat, fructose and cholesterol for 36 weeks. This was followed by 8 weeks of treatment with the receptor-specific agonists 1-GCG (20 µg/kg twice daily), 2-GLP1 (3 µg/kg twice daily) or 3-GIP (30 µg/kg twice daily), or the dual (1 + 2) or triple (1 + 2 + 3) combinations thereof. A dual GLP-1R/GCGR agonistic peptide, 4-dual-GLP1/GCGR (30 µg/kg twice daily), and liraglutide (100 µg/kg twice daily) were included as references. RESULTS: Whereas low-dose 1-GCG or 3-GIP alone did not influence body weight, liver lipids and histology, their combination with 2-GLP1 provided additional weight loss, reduction in liver triglycerides and improvement in histological disease activity score. Notably, 4-dual-GLP-1R/GCGR and the triple combination of selective mono-agonists led to a significantly stronger reduction in the histological non-alcoholic fatty liver disease activity score compared to high-dose liraglutide, at the same extent of body weight loss. CONCLUSIONS: GCGR and GIPR agonism provide additional, body weight-independent improvements on top of GLP-1R agonism in a murine model of manifest NASH with fibrosis.

Running on mixed fuel-dual agonistic approach of GLP-1 and GCG receptors leads to beneficial impact on body weight and blood glucose control: A comparative study between mice and non-human primates.

AIM: We performed acute and chronic studies in healthy and diet-induced obese animals using mouse-specific or monkey-specific dual GLP-1R/GCGR agonists to investigate their effects on food intake, body weight, blood glucose control and insulin secretion. The selective GLP-1R agonist liraglutide was used as comparator. METHODS: The mouse-specific dual agonist and liraglutide were tested in lean wild type, GLP-1R knockout and diet-induced obese mice at different doses. A chronic study was performed in DIO mice to investigate the effect on body weight, food consumption and total energy expenditure (TEE) in obese and diabetic monkeys with a focus on body weight and energy intake. RESULTS: The mouse-specific dual agonist and liraglutide similarly affected glycaemic control. A higher loss in body weight was measured in dual agonist-treated obese mice. The dual agonist significantly enhanced plasma glucose excursion in overnight fed GLP-1R-/- mice, probably reflecting a potent GCGR agonist activity. It increased TEE and enhanced fat and carbohydrate oxidation, while liraglutide produced no effect on TEE. In obese and diabetic monkeys, treatment with the monkey-specific dual agonist reduced total energy intake to 60%-70% of baseline TEI during chronic treatment. A decrease in body weight and significant improvement in glucose tolerance was observed. CONCLUSIONS: In DIO mice and non-human primates, dual agonists elicited robust glycaemic control, similar to the marketed GLP-1R agonist, while eliciting greater effects on body weight. Results from DIO mice suggest that the increase in TEE is caused not only by increased fat oxidation but also by an increase in carbohydrate oxidation.

GPR17 gene disruption does not alter food intake or glucose homeostasis in mice.

G protein-coupled receptor 17 (GPR17) was recently reported to be a Foxo1 target in agouti-related peptide (AGRP) neurons. Intracerebroventricular injection of GPR17 agonists induced food intake, whereas administration of an antagonist to the receptor reduced feeding. These data lead to the conclusion that pharmacological modulation of GPR17 has therapeutic potential to treat obesity. Here we report that mice deficient in Gpr17 (Gpr17(-/-)) have similar food intake and body weight compared with their wild-type littermates. Gpr17(-/-) mice have normal hypothalamic Agrp mRNA expression, AGRP plasma levels, and metabolic rate. GPR17 deficiency in mice did not affect glucose homeostasis or prevent fat-induced insulin resistance. These data do not support a role for GPR17 in the control of food intake, body weight, or glycemic control.

Neurobeachin, a regulator of synaptic protein targeting, is associated with body fat mass and feeding behavior in mice and body-mass index in humans.

Neurobeachin (Nbea) regulates neuronal membrane protein trafficking and is required for the development and functioning of central and neuromuscular synapses. In homozygous knockout (KO) mice, Nbea deficiency causes perinatal death. Here, we report that heterozygous KO mice haploinsufficient for Nbea have higher body weight due to increased adipose tissue mass. In several feeding paradigms, heterozygous KO mice consumed more food than wild-type (WT) controls, and this consumption was primarily driven by calories rather than palatability. Expression analysis of feeding-related genes in the hypothalamus and brainstem with real-time PCR showed differential expression of a subset of neuropeptide or neuropeptide receptor mRNAs between WT and Nbea+/- mice in the sated state and in response to food deprivation, but not to feeding reward. In humans, we identified two intronic NBEA single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that are significantly associated with body-mass index (BMI) in adult and juvenile cohorts. Overall, data obtained in mice and humans suggest that variation of Nbea abundance or activity critically affects body weight, presumably by influencing the activity of feeding-related neural circuits. Our study emphasizes the importance of neural mechanisms in body weight control and points out NBEA as a potential risk gene in human obesity.

Standardized, systemic phenotypic analysis of Slc12a1I299F mutant mice.

BACKGROUND: Type I Bartter syndrome is a recessive human nephropathy caused by loss-of-function mutations in the SLC12A1 gene coding for the Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter NKCC2. We recently established the mutant mouse line Slc12a1I299F exhibiting kidney defects highly similar to the late-onset manifestation of this hereditary human disease. Besides the kidney defects, low blood pressure and osteopenia were revealed in the homozygous mutant mice which were also described in humans. Beside its strong expression in the kidney, NKCC2 has been also shown to be expressed in other tissues in rodents i.e. the gastrointestinal tract, pancreatic beta cells, and specific compartments of the ear, nasal tissue and eye. RESULTS: To examine if, besides kidney defects, further organ systems and/or metabolic pathways are affected by the Slc12a1I299F mutation as primary or secondary effects, we describe a standardized, systemic phenotypic analysis of the mutant mouse line Slc12a1I299F in the German Mouse Clinic. Slc12a1I299F homozygous mutant mice and Slc12a1I299F heterozygous mutant littermates as controls were tested at the age of 4-6 months. Beside the already published changes in blood pressure and bone metabolism, a significantly lower body weight and fat content were found as new phenotypes for Slc12a1I299F homozygous mutant mice. Small additional effects included a mild erythropenic anemia in homozygous mutant males as well as a slight hyperalgesia in homozygous mutant females. For other functions, such as immunology, lung function and neurology, no distinct alterations were observed. CONCLUSIONS: In this systemic analysis no clear primary effects of the Slc12a1I299F mutation appeared for the organs other than the kidneys where Slc12a1 expression has been described. On the other hand, long-term effects additional and/or secondary to the kidney lesions might also appear in humans harboring SLC12A1 mutations.

Does enamelin have pleiotropic effects on organs other than the teeth? Lessons from a phenotyping screen of two enamelin-mutant mouse lines.

We analyzed two mutant mouse lines, ATE1 and ATE2, that carry point mutations in the enamelin gene which result in premature stop codons in exon 8 and exon 7, respectively. Both mutant lines show amelogenesis imperfecta. To establish the effect of mutations within the enamelin gene on different organs, we performed a systematic, standardized phenotypic analysis of both mutant lines in the German Mouse Clinic. In addition to the initially characterized tooth phenotype that is present in both mutant lines, we detected effects of enamelin mutations on bone and energy metabolism, as well as on clinical chemical and hematological parameters. These data raise the hypothesis that enamelin defects have pleiotropic effects on organs other than the teeth.

Analysis of 16 studies in nine rodent models does not support the hypothesis that diabetic polyuria is a main reason of urinary bladder enlargement.

The urinary bladder is markedly enlarged in the type 1 diabetes mellitus model of streptozotocin-injected rats, which may contribute to the frequent diabetic uropathy. Much less data exists for models of type 2 diabetes. Diabetic polyuria has been proposed as the pathophysiological mechanism behind bladder enlargement. Therefore, we explored such a relationship across nine distinct rodent models of diabetes including seven models of type 2 diabetes/obesity by collecting data on bladder weight and blood glucose from 16 studies with 2-8 arms each; some studies included arms with various diets and/or pharmacological treatments. Data were analysed for bladder enlargement and for correlations between bladder weight on the one and glucose levels on the other hand. Our data confirm major bladder enlargement in streptozotocin rats and minor if any enlargement in fructose-fed rats, db/db mice and mice on a high-fat diet; enlargement was present in some of five not reported previously models. Bladder weight was correlated with blood glucose as a proxy for diabetic polyuria within some but not other models, but correlations were moderate to weak except for RIP-LCMV mice (r 2 of pooled data from all studies 0.0621). Insulin levels also failed to correlate to a meaningful extent. Various diets and medications (elafibranor, empagliflozin, linagliptin, semaglutide) had heterogeneous effects on bladder weight that often did not match their effects on glucose levels. We conclude that the presence and extent of bladder enlargement vary markedly across diabetes models, particularly type 2 diabetes models; our data do not support the idea that bladder enlargement is primarily driven by glucose levels/glucosuria.

Effects on weight loss and glycemic control with SAR441255, a potent unimolecular peptide GLP-1/GIP/GCG receptor triagonist.

Unimolecular triple incretins, combining the activity of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), and glucagon (GCG), have demonstrated reduction in body weight and improved glucose control in rodent models. We developed SAR441255, a synthetic peptide agonist of the GLP-1, GCG, and GIP receptors, structurally based on the exendin-4 sequence. SAR441255 displays high potency with balanced activation of all three target receptors. In animal models, metabolic outcomes were superior to results with a dual GLP-1/GCG receptor agonist. Preclinical in vivo positron emission tomography imaging demonstrated SAR441255 binding to GLP-1 and GCG receptors. In healthy subjects, SAR441255 improved glycemic control during a mixed-meal tolerance test and impacted biomarkers for GCG and GIP receptor activation. Single doses of SAR441255 were well tolerated. The results demonstrate that integrating GIP activity into dual GLP-1 and GCG receptor agonism provides improved effects on weight loss and glycemic control while buffering the diabetogenic risk of chronic GCG receptor agonism.

Novel tricyclic small molecule inhibitors of Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase for the treatment of metabolic disorders.

Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT) is a metabolic regulator that catalyzes the methylation of nicotinamide (Nam) using the co-factor S-adenosyl-L-methionine to form 1-methyl-nicotinamide (MNA). Overexpression of NNMT and the presence of the active metabolite MNA is associated with a number of diseases including metabolic disorders. We conducted a high-throughput screening campaign that led to the identification of a tricyclic core as a potential NNMT small molecule inhibitor series. Elaborate medicinal chemistry efforts were undertaken and hundreds of analogs were synthesized to understand the structure activity relationship and structure property relationship of this tricyclic series. A lead molecule, JBSNF-000028, was identified that inhibits human and mouse NNMT activity, reduces MNA levels in mouse plasma, liver and adipose tissue, and drives insulin sensitization, glucose modulation and body weight reduction in a diet-induced obese mouse model of diabetes. The co-crystal structure showed that JBSNF-000028 binds below a hairpin structural motif at the nicotinamide pocket and stacks between Tyr-204 (from Hairpin) and Leu-164 (from central domain). JBSNF-000028 was inactive against a broad panel of targets related to metabolism and safety. Interestingly, the improvement in glucose tolerance upon treatment with JBSNF-000028 was also observed in NNMT knockout mice with diet-induced obesity, pointing towards the glucose-normalizing effect that may go beyond NNMT inhibition. JBSNF-000028 can be a potential therapeutic option for metabolic disorders and developmental studies are warranted.

Activation of Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase Reduces the Onset of Diet-Induced Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Mice.

The worldwide obesity and type 2 diabetes epidemics have led to an increase in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). NAFLD covers a spectrum of hepatic pathologies ranging from simple steatosis to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, characterized by fibrosis and hepatic inflammation. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis predisposes to the onset of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we characterized the effect of a pharmacological activator of the intracellular energy sensor adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) on NAFLD progression in a mouse model. The compound stimulated fat oxidation by activating AMPK in both liver and skeletal muscle, as revealed by indirect calorimetry. This translated into an ameliorated hepatic steatosis and reduced fibrosis progression in mice fed a diet high in fat, cholesterol, and fructose for 20 weeks. Feeding mice this diet for 80 weeks caused the onset of HCC. The administration of the AMPK activator for 12 weeks significantly reduced tumor incidence and size. Conclusion: Pharmacological activation of AMPK reduces NAFLD progression to HCC in preclinical models.

Genetic Nicotinamide N-Methyltransferase (Nnmt) Deficiency in Male Mice Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Diet-Induced Obesity but Does Not Affect Glucose Tolerance.

Antisense oligonucleotide knockdown (ASO-KD) of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT) in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice has been reported to reduce weight gain and plasma insulin levels and to improve glucose tolerance. Using NNMT-ASO-KD or NNMT knockout mice (NNMT-/-), we tested the hypothesis that Nnmt deletion protects against diet-induced obesity and its metabolic consequences in males and females on obesity-inducing diets. We also examined samples from a human weight reduction (WR) study for adipose NNMT (aNNMT) expression and plasma 1-methylnicotinamide (MNAM) levels. In Western diet (WD)-fed female mice, NNMT-ASO-KD reduced body weight, fat mass, and insulin level and improved glucose tolerance. Although NNMT-/- mice fed a standard diet had no obvious phenotype, NNMT-/- males fed an HFD showed strongly improved insulin sensitivity (IS). Furthermore, NNMT-/- females fed a WD showed reduced weight gain, less fat, and lower insulin levels. However, no improved glucose tolerance was observed in NNMT-/- mice. Although NNMT expression in human fat biopsy samples increased during WR, corresponding plasma MNAM levels significantly declined, suggesting that other mechanisms besides aNNMT expression modulate circulating MNAM levels during WR. In summary, upon NNMT deletion or knockdown in males and females fed different obesity-inducing diets, we observed sex- and diet-specific differences in body composition, weight, and glucose tolerance and estimates of IS.

Increased energy expenditure contributes more to the body weight-reducing effect of rimonabant than reduced food intake in candy-fed wistar rats.

The CB1 receptor antagonist, rimonabant, affects the endocannabinoid system and causes a sustained reduction in body weight (BW) despite the transient nature of the reduction in food intake. Therefore, in a multiple-dose study, female candy-fed Wistar rats were treated with rimonabant (10 mg/kg) and matched with pair-fed rats to distinguish between hypophagic action and hypothesized effects on energy expenditure. Within the first week of treatment, rimonabant reduced BW nearly to levels of standard rat chow-fed rats. Evaluation of energy balance (energy expenditure measured by indirect calorimetry in relation to metabolizable energy intake calculated by bomb calorimetry) revealed that increased energy expenditure based on increased fat oxidation contributed more to sustained BW reduction than reduced food intake. A mere food reduction through pair feeding did not result in comparable effects because animals reduced their energy expenditure to save energy stores. Because fat oxidation measured by indirect calorimetry increased immediately after dosing in the postprandial state, the acute effect of rimonabant on lipolysis was investigated in postprandial male rats. Rimonabant elevated free fatty acids postprandially, demonstrating an inherent pharmacological activity of rimonabant to induce lipolysis and not secondarily postabsorptively due to reduced food intake. We conclude that the weight-reducing effect of rimonabant was due to continuously elevated energy expenditure based on increased fat oxidation driven by lipolysis from fat tissue as long as fat stores were elevated. When the amount of endogenous fat stores declined, rimonabant-induced increased energy expenditure was maintained by a re-increase in food intake.

Team Players or Opponents: Coadministration of Selective Glucagon and GLP-1 Receptor Agonists in Obese Diabetic Monkeys.

We assessed the therapeutic contribution of the individual components of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) and glucagon receptor (GCGR) agonists alone and in combination upon energy homeostasis and glycemic control in diet-induced obese, diabetic nonhuman primates. The pharmacological active dose ranges of selective agonists were established through a dose-finding study, followed by a 6-week chronic study. Repeated subcutaneous administration of a selective GCGR agonist (30 µg/kg once daily) did not affect food intake or body weight, whereas the selective GLP-1R agonist (3 µg/kg once daily) alone decreased energy intake by 18% and body weight by 3.8% ± 0.9%. Combination of both agonists reduced significantly cumulative food intake by 27% and body weight by 6.6% ± 0.9%. Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) was improved by GLP-1R agonist (baseline vs end of study, 176.7 ± 34.0 vs 115.9 ± 16.1 mg/dL). In contrast, groups exposed to GCGR agonist experienced nonsignificant elevations of FPG. More accurate assessment of therapeutic interventions on glucose homeostasis was tested by an IV glucose tolerance test. Glucose excursion was significantly elevated by chronic GCGR agonist administration, whereas it was significantly decreased in GLP-1R agonist-treated monkeys. In the combination group, a nonsignificant increase of glucose excursion was seen, concomitantly with significantly increased insulin secretion. We conclude that chronic glucagon agonism does not affect energy homeostasis in nonhuman primates. In combination with GLP-1R agonism, glucagon agonism synergistically enhances negative energy balance with resulting larger body weight loss. However, adding GCGR to GLP-1R agonism diminishes glycemic control in diabetic monkeys. Therefore, long-term therapeutic implications of using GLP-1R/GCGR coagonists for weight management in diabetes warrants further scrutiny.

Dual Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1)/Glucagon Receptor Agonists Specifically Optimized for Multidose Formulations.

Novel peptidic dual agonists of the glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and glucagon receptor are reported to have enhanced efficacy over pure GLP-1 receptor agonists with regard to treatment of obesity and diabetes. We describe novel exendin-4 based dual agonists designed with an activity ratio favoring the GLP-1 versus the glucagon receptor. As result of an iterative optimization procedure that included molecular modeling, structural biological studies (X-ray, NMR), peptide design and synthesis, experimental activity, and solubility profiling, a candidate molecule was identified. Novel SAR points are reported that allowed us to fine-tune the desired receptor activity ratio and increased solubility in the presence of antimicrobial preservatives, findings that can be of general applicability for any peptide discovery project. The peptide was evaluated in chronic in vivo studies in obese diabetic monkeys as translational model for the human situation and demonstrated favorable blood glucose and body weight lowering effects.

A small molecule inhibitor of Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase for the treatment of metabolic disorders.

Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT) is a cytosolic enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from the co-factor S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) onto the substrate, nicotinamide (NA) to form 1-methyl-nicotinamide (MNA). Higher NNMT expression and MNA concentrations have been associated with obesity and type-2 diabetes. Here we report a small molecule analog of NA, JBSNF-000088, that inhibits NNMT activity, reduces MNA levels and drives insulin sensitization, glucose modulation and body weight reduction in animal models of metabolic disease. In mice with high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity, JBSNF-000088 treatment caused a reduction in body weight, improved insulin sensitivity and normalized glucose tolerance to the level of lean control mice. These effects were not seen in NNMT knockout mice on HFD, confirming specificity of JBSNF-000088. The compound also improved glucose handling in ob/ob and db/db mice albeit to a lesser extent and in the absence of weight loss. Co-crystal structure analysis revealed the presence of the N-methylated product of JBSNF-000088 bound to the NNMT protein. The N-methylated product was also detected in the plasma of mice treated with JBSNF-000088. Hence, JBSNF-000088 may act as a slow-turnover substrate analog, driving the observed metabolic benefits.

Design of Novel Exendin-Based Dual Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1)/Glucagon Receptor Agonists.

Dual activation of the glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and glucagon receptor has the potential to lead to a novel therapy principle for the treatment of diabesity. Here, we report a series of novel peptides with dual activity on these receptors that were discovered by rational design. On the basis of sequence analysis and structure-based design, structural elements of glucagon were engineered into the selective GLP-1 receptor agonist exendin-4, resulting in hybrid peptides with potent dual GLP-1/glucagon receptor activity. Detailed structure-activity relationship data are shown. Further modifications with unnatural and modified amino acids resulted in novel metabolically stable peptides that demonstrated a significant dose-dependent decrease in blood glucose in chronic studies in diabetic db/db mice and reduced body weight in diet-induced obese (DIO) mice. Structural analysis by NMR spectroscopy confirmed that the peptides maintain an exendin-4-like structure with its characteristic tryptophan-cage fold motif that is responsible for favorable chemical and physical stability.

The First Scube3 Mutant Mouse Line with Pleiotropic Phenotypic Alterations.

The vertebrate Scube (Signal peptide, CUB, and EGF-like domain-containing protein) family consists of three independent members, Scube1-3, which encode secreted cell surface-associated membrane glycoproteins. Limited information about the general function of this gene family is available, and their roles during adulthood. Here, we present the first Scube3 mutant mouse line (Scube3N294K/N294K), which clearly shows phenotypic alterations by carrying a missense mutation in exon 8, and thus contributes to our understanding of SCUBE3 functions. We performed a detailed phenotypic characterization in the German Mouse Clinic (GMC). Scube3N294K/N294K mutants showed morphological abnormalities of the skeleton, alterations of parameters relevant for bone metabolism, changes in renal function, and hearing impairments. These findings correlate with characteristics of the rare metabolic bone disorder Paget disease of bone (PDB), associated with the chromosomal region of human SCUBE3 In addition, alterations in energy metabolism, behavior, and neurological functions were detected in Scube3N294K/N294K mice. The Scube3N294K/N294K mutant mouse line may serve as a new model for further studying the effect of impaired SCUBE3 gene function.

Natural hypometabolism during hibernation and daily torpor in mammals.

Daily torpor and hibernation are the most powerful measures of endotherms to reduce their energy expenditure. During entrance into these torpid states metabolic rate is suppressed to a fraction of euthermic metabolism, paralleled by reductions in ventilation and heart rate. Body temperature gradually decreases towards the level of ambient temperature. In deep torpor body temperature as well as metabolic rate are controlled at a hypothermic and hypometabolic level. Torpid states are terminated by an arousal where metabolic rate spontaneously returns to normal levels again and euthermic body temperature is established by a burst of heat production. In recent years some of the cellular mechanisms which contribute to hypometabolism have been disclosed. Transcription, translation, as well as protein synthesis are largely suppressed. Cell proliferation in highly proliferating epithelia like the intestine is suspended. ATP production from glucose is reduced and lipids serve as the major substrate for remaining energy requirements. All these changes are rapidly reverted to normometabolism during arousal. Hibernation and daily torpor are found in small mammals inhabiting temperate as well as tropical climates. It indicates that this behaviour is not primarily aimed for cold defense, instead points to a general role of hypometabolism, as a measure to cope with a timely limited or seasonal bottleneck of energy supply.

Expression patterning reveals retinal inflammation as a minor factor in experimental retinopathy of ZDF rats.

Obese Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats are used as a type-2 diabetes model for microvascular complications. In order to study retinopathy in this model, changes in retinal vasculature were analyzed by quantitative morphometry and related to retinal expression of 46 selected genes that were analyzed by microfluidic card PCR technology. At 3 months of age, obese animals had developed stable hyperglycemia (20.7 ± 1.3 mmol/L plasma glucose vs. 6.5 ± 0.1 mmol/L in lean). Hyperinsulinemia initially presented in obese rats at 2 months (10.5 ± 0.7 µg/L plasma insulin vs. 0.2 ± 0.04 µg/L in lean) and decreased at 3 months (3.9 ± 0.6 vs. 0.5 ± 0.09 µg/ml in lean). At 8 months of age, animals had developed microvascular complications. An increased number of acellular capillaries in obese (24 ± 5/mm(2)) versus lean (15 ± 4/mm(2)) and a decreased number of retinal pericytes in obese (2,270 ± 250/mm(2)) versus lean animals (1,620 ± 243/mm(2)) could be observed. VEGFa, MIF, and HIF-1α were the most abundantly expressed and inflammatory genes such as TNFα and IL-6 are the least abundantly expressed genes. None of these genes were differentially regulated. Surprisingly, specific growth factors such as bFGF (FGF2) and placental growth factor, and adhesion molecules such as ICAM-1 were abundantly expressed and up-regulated in diabetic versus non-diabetic ZDF rats. In summary, we observed in type-2 diabetic ZDF rats retinopathy with retinal vasoregression along with a simultaneous up-regulation of specific growth factors such as bFGF and adhesion molecules, but only minor changes in key inflammatory genes.