The Propensity for Deviant Sexual Behavior in the General Population: An Empirical Examination of the Motivation-Facilitation Model.

In their influential paper Wurtele et al. (2014) investigated the degree to which individuals within the general population (N = 435) express sexual interest in children. In the male population of their study (n = 173), about 6% showed a propensity to engage in sexual activity with a child. Based on a German general population sample consisting of women and men (N = 911, n = 206 males), we were able to replicate most of the results of Wurtele and colleagues (e.g., 6% of men indicated some likelihood of having sex with a child). To explain sexual offending, Seto (2019) developed the motivation-facilitation model (MFM). In our study, we were interested whether this model also translates to explaining the propensity for deviant sexual behavior in the general population. Moderated hierarchical logistic regression analyses revealed that hypersexuality and sexual fantasies had significant effects as motivating factors for deviant sexual behavior (e.g., sexually assaulting an adult), whereas we found no significant effect of psychopathy as a facilitator. For the prediction of child sexual abuse, only hypersexuality had a significant effect. Notably, after including gender in both models the effect of hypersexuality was no longer significant. Accordingly, we were able to show that the MFM is useful in explaining the propensity for deviant sexual behavior foremost in the male general population. Thus, in clinical practice an assessment of hypersexuality seems to be most relevant for the male population.

The switching process from buprenorphine sublingual tablets to the monthly buprenorphine subcutaneous depot injection in opioid dependent patients.

The 2018 European Union (EU) approved weekly and monthly subcutaneous buprenorphine depot injection (BUP-XR), for opioid substitution medication proved to offer some specific treatment benefits. The present study examines the process of switching from buprenorphine sublingual tablets (BUP-SL) to BUP-XR from a patient's point of view. In total, nine patients were surveyed by means of an open-answer questionnaire regarding course and side effects of the medication switch. Six of these patients were surveyed in more detail under BUP-SL, as well as 4 and 16 weeks after the switch to BUP-XR by means of a test battery of questions on socio-demography, withdrawal symptoms, craving, physical well-being, treatment satisfaction and concomitant use of illegal substances. Patients reported significant worse physical well-being and lower treatment satisfaction in 4 weeks compared with 16 weeks after the medication switch to the BUP-XR. Furthermore, they reported significant more frequent co-use of illicit drugs, worse physical well-being, lower treatment satisfaction and more craving experience 4 weeks after the switch compared with the treatment under BUP-SL. Patients 16 weeks under BUP-XR reported significant more illicit co-use and lower treatment satisfaction compared with patients under BUP-SL. Connections between therapy dissatisfaction, physical discomfort, experienced craving and drug co-consumption were discovered. In the first weeks after the medication switch, patients experience potentially distressing symptoms, which, however, seem to diminish over time. Close supervision and comprehensive patient education on possible burdens of the medication switch to the BUP-XR might prevent unfavourable treatment courses and premature therapy dropouts.

Quality of Life in Opioid Replacement Therapy: A Naturalistic Cross-Sectional Comparison of Methadone/Levomethadone, Buprenorphine, and Diamorphine Patients.

BACKGROUND: Research on quality of life (QoL) of chronically ill patients provides an opportunity to evaluate the efficacy of long-term treatments. Although it is established that opioid replacement therapy is an effective treatment for opioid-dependent patients, there is little knowledge about physical and psychological functioning of QoL for different treatment options. OBJECTIVES: Altogether, 248 opioid-dependent patients receiving substitution treatment with either methadone/levomethadone (n = 126), diamorphine (n = 85), or buprenorphine (n = 37) were recruited in 6 German therapy centers. METHODS: Sociodemographic data were collected. QoL - physical and psychological functioning - for different substitutes was assessed using the Profile of the Quality of Life in the Chronically Ill (PLC) questionnaire. RESULTS: Patient groups were similar regarding age and duration of opioid dependence. Employment rate was significantly higher (p < 0.005, φ = 0.22) in the buprenorphine group (46%) compared to methadone (18%). Dosage adjustments were more frequent (p < 0.001, φ = 0.29) in diamorphine (55%) than in methadone (30%) or buprenorphine (19%) patients. Buprenorphine and diamorphine patients rated their physical functioning substantially higher than methadone patients (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.141). Diamorphine patients reported a higher psychological functioning (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.078) and overall life improvement (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.060) compared to methadone, but not compared to buprenorphine patients (both p > 0.25). CONCLUSION: Measurement of important QoL aspects indicates significant differences for physical and psychological functioning in patients receiving the substitutes methadone/levomethadone, diamorphine, and buprenorphine. This could be relevant for the differential therapy of opioid addiction.

Chronic stress, executive functioning, and real-life self-control: An experience sampling study.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that chronic stress impairs the use of cognitive control for self-control, we examined how chronic stress affects the relation between individual differences in general executive functioning (GEF) and self-control in real-life situations. METHOD: About 338 young adults with varying degrees of chronic stress underwent experience sampling of real-life self-control for 7 days and completed a battery of nine executive function tasks from which a latent variable representing individual differences in GEF was derived. RESULTS: Structural equation models showed that higher levels of chronic stress were associated with stronger desires and a less negative relationship between GEF and desire strength. Chronic stress and GEF did not predict desire enactment in situations where effortful resistance was attempted. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that chronic stress may impair self-control by reducing the use of cognitive control for "early" desire regulation strategies while leaving "late" resistance strategies unaffected. That relationships between executive functioning and real-life self-control can be moderated by third factors such as chronic stress may to some extent explain the common finding of weak or missing associations between laboratory measures of executive functioning and real-life self-control.

Cumulative Dopamine Genetic Score predicts behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of response inhibition via interactions with task demand.

Functional genetic polymorphisms in the brain dopamine (DA) system have been suggested to underlie individual differences in response inhibition, namely the suppression of a prepotent or inappropriate action. However, findings on associations between single DA polymorphisms and inhibitory control often are mixed, partly due to their small effect sizes. In the present study, a cumulative genetic score (CGS) was used: alleles previously associated with both impulsive behavior and lower baseline DA level, precisely the DRD4 Exon III 7-repeat, DAT1 VNTR 10-repeat and the COMT 158val allele, each added a point to the DA-CGS. Participants (N = 128) completed a Go/No-Go task varying in difficulty and EEG recordings were made with focus on the NoGo-P3, an ERP that reflects inhibitory response processes. We found a higher DA-CGS (lower basal/tonic DA level) to be associated with better performance (lower %FA and more adaptive responding) in the very demanding/rapid than in the less demanding/rapid condition, whereas the reverse pattern was true for individuals with a lower DA-CGS. A similar interaction pattern of DA-CGS and task condition was found for NoGo-P3 amplitude. In line with assumptions of distinct optimum DA levels for different cognitive demands, a DA-CGS-dependent variation of tonic DA levels could have modulated the balance between cognitive stability and flexibility, thereby affecting the optimal DA level required for the specific task condition. Moreover, a task demand-dependent phasic DA release might have added to the DA-CGS-related basal/tonic DA levels, thereby additionally affecting the balance between flexibility and stability, in turn influencing performance and NoGo-P3.

Lumbar puncture rapidly improves olfaction in patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension: A cohort study.

BACKGROUND: A lumbar puncture constitutes an important diagnostic procedure in the evaluation of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Chronic overflow of cerebrospinal fluid into the sheaths of the olfactory nerves appears to be related to olfactory impairment in these patients. Here, we asked whether cerebrospinal fluid drainage in idiopathic intracranial hypertension patients improves olfactory function. METHODS: Fourteen idiopathic intracranial hypertension patients and 14 neurologic control patients were investigated before and after lumbar puncture using the extended Sniffin' Sticks procedure. We assessed odor threshold, discrimination, and identification. In idiopathic intracranial hypertension patients, cerebrospinal fluid was drained until cerebrospinal fluid pressure had normalized. In addition, a third group of 14 healthy controls participated in the two smell tests at similar intervals. RESULTS: Relative to healthy controls, threshold, discrimination, and identification composite scores before lumbar puncture were significantly lower in idiopathic intracranial hypertension patients and also in neurologic controls. Following lumbar puncture, threshold, discrimination, and identification scores for neurologic controls remained unchanged whereas idiopathic intracranial hypertension patients showed robust improvement on the composite score as well as on all three subscores (all changes: p < 0.003), quickly regaining olfactory function in the normal range. Cerebrospinal fluid opening pressure was significantly correlated with improvement in threshold, discrimination, and identification score upon cerebrospinal fluid drainage (r = 0.609, p = 0.021). CONCLUSION: Olfactory impairment is an important, yet underappreciated, clinical feature of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Lowering of increased intracranial pressure improves hyposmia. Our findings shed new light on the pathophysiology of cerebrospinal fluid circulation in idiopathic intracranial hypertension.

Sense of coherence, mental well-being and perceived preoperative hospital and surgery related stress in surgical patients with malignant, benign, and no neoplasms.

BACKGROUND: This prospective, cross-sectional, observational study examined associations between sense of coherence (SOC), mental well-being, and perceived preoperative hospital and surgery related stress of surgical patients with malignant, benign, and no neoplasms. The objective was to assess a putative association between SOC and preoperative stress, and to test for a statistical mediation by mental well-being. METHOD: The sample consisted of 4918 patients from diverse surgical fields, of which 945 had malignant neoplasms, 333 benign neoplasms, and 3640 no neoplasms. For each subsample, we conducted simple mediation analyses to test an indirect effect of SOC on preoperative stress mediated by mental well-being. The models were adjusted for age, gender, and essential medical factors. RESULTS: Patient groups did not differ significantly regarding degrees of SOC and mental well-being (SOC, M [SD]: 12.31 [2.59], 12.02 [2.62], 12.18 [2.57]; mental well-being M [SD]: 59.26 [24.05], 56.89 [22.67], 57.31 [22.87], in patients with malignant, benign, and without neoplasms, respectively). Patients without neoplasms reported significantly lower stress (4.19 [2.86], M [SD]) than those with benign (5.02 [3.03], M [SD]) and malignant neoplasms (4.99 [2.93], M [SD]). In all three mediation models, SOC had significant direct effects on stress, with higher SOC being associated with lower stress (- 0.3170 [0.0407], - 0.3484 [0.0752], - 0.2919 [0.0206]; c' [SE], p < 0.001 in patients with malignant, benign, and without neoplasms, respectively). In patients with malignant neoplasms and without neoplasms, SOC showed small indirect effects on stress that were statistically mediated by well-being. Higher SOC was related to higher well-being, which in turn was related to lower stress. In patients with benign neoplasms, however, no significant indirect effects of SOC were found. CONCLUSIONS: SOC was directly associated with lower perceived hospital and surgery related stress, over and above the direct and mediation effects of mental well-being. Because the data are cross-sectional, conclusions implying causality cannot be drawn. Nevertheless, they indicate important relationships that can inform treatment approaches to reduce elevated preoperative stress by specifically addressing low SOC. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01357694 . Registered 18 May 2011.

Genetic variation in serotonin function impacts on altruistic punishment in the ultimatum game: A longitudinal approach.

Growing evidence demonstrates that the serotonin system influences punishment behavior in social decision-making and that individual differences in the propensity to punish are, at least in part, due to genetic variation. However, the specific genes and their mechanisms by which they influence punishment behavior are not yet fully characterized. Here, we examined whether serotonin system-related gene variation impacts on altruistic punishment in the ultimatum game by using a longitudinal approach with three time points, covering a time frame up to four months in young adults (N = 106). Specifically, we investigated additive effects of 5-HTTLPR and TPH2 G-703T genotypes by using a composite score. This composite score was significantly associated with altruistic punishment, with individuals carrying both the S-allele and the G-allele demonstrating less punishment behavior. The results suggest that serotonin system-related gene variation contributes to individual differences in altruistic punishment. Furthermore, comparably high test-retest correlations suggest that punishment behavior in the ultimatum game represents a relatively stable, trait-like behavior.

The interplay between feedback-related negativity and individual differences in altruistic punishment: An EEG study.

To date, the interplay betwexen neurophysiological and individual difference factors in altruistic punishment has been little understood. To examine this issue, 45 individuals participated in a Dictator Game with punishment option while the feedback-related negativity (FRN) was derived from the electroencephalogram (EEG). Unlike previous EEG studies on the Dictator Game, we introduced a third party condition to study the effect of fairness norm violations in addition to employing a first person perspective. For the first time, we also examined the role of individual differences, specifically fairness concerns, positive/negative affectivity, and altruism/empathy as well as recipients' financial situation during altruistic punishment. The main results show that FRN amplitudes were more pronounced for unfair than for fair assignments in both the first person and third party perspectives. These findings suggest that FRN amplitudes are sensitive to fairness norm violations and play a crucial role in the recipients' evaluation of dictator assignments. With respect to individual difference factors, recipients' current financial situation affected the FRN fairness effect in the first person perspective, indicating that when being directly affected by the assignments, more affluent participants experienced stronger violations of expectations in altruistic punishment decisions. Regarding individual differences in trait empathy, in the third party condition FRN amplitudes were more pronounced for those who scored lower in empathy. This may suggest empathy as another motive in third party punishment. Independent of the perspective taken, higher positive affect was associated with more punishment behavior, suggesting that positive emotions may play an important role in restoring violated fairness norms.

Variation in key genes of serotonin and norepinephrine function predicts gamma-band activity during goal-directed attention.

Recent evidence shows that genetic variations in key regulators of serotonergic (5-HT) signaling explain variance in executive tasks, which suggests modulatory actions of 5-HT on goal-directed selective attention as one possible underlying mechanism. To investigate this link, 130 volunteers were genotyped for the 5-HT transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and for a variation (TPH2-703 G/T) of the TPH2 gene coding for the rate-limiting enzyme of 5-HT synthesis in the brain. Additionally, a functional polymorphism of the norepinephrine transporter gene (NET -3081 A/T) was considered, which was recently found to predict attention and working memory processes in interaction with serotonergic genes. The flanker-based Attention Network Test was used to assess goal-directed attention and the efficiency of attentional networks. Event-related gamma-band activity served to indicate selective attention at the intermediate phenotype level. The main findings were that 5-HTTLPR s allele and TPH2 G-allele homozygotes showed increased induced gamma-band activity during target processing when combined with the NET A/A genotype compared with other genotype combinations, and that gamma activity mediates the genotype-specific effects on task performance. The results further support a modulatory role of 5-HT and NE function in the top-down attentional selection of motivationally relevant over competing or irrelevant sensory input.

Open-label placebos enhance test performance and reduce anxiety in learner drivers: a randomized controlled trial.

Passing the driving school test can be very challenging, especially in big cities, where up to 52% of all students fail this test. Consequently, many learner drivers experience stress and anxiety. For some learner drivers these feelings can be extreme and negatively affect the performance in the driving test. Different strategies to face anxiety and stress are known, including, for example, psychological or pharmacological approaches and even placebo pills. Recent intriguing findings have also demonstrated that placebos without deception, so-called open-label placebos, successfully reduce anxiety. Here we aimed to test effects of this novel treatment for learner drivers. We investigated whether open-label placebos affect test performance and feelings of anxiety in learner drivers. Sixty-eight healthy participants (mean age 21.94 years, 26 females) were randomized into two groups. The open-label placebo group received placebo pills two weeks before the driving test (two pills each day). The control group received no treatment. Results revealed that the open-label placebo group experienced significantly less anxiety than the control group before the test (measured with the State-Trait-Anxiety-Inventory, STAI-S, and the German Test Anxiety Inventory, PAF). Moreover, in the open-label placebo group less learner drivers failed the driving test (29.41% vs. 52.95%). The results suggest that open-label placebos may provide an ethical unproblematic way to experience less anxiety and might also enhance the probability to pass the driving test. We discuss possible mechanisms of open-label placebos and limitations of our findings.

Open-label placebos reduce weight in obesity: a randomized controlled trial.

Obesity is a major public health problem worldwide. Different approaches are known to face this problem, for example, dieting, surgery, or drug interventions. It has also been shown that placebos may help to reduce weight and hunger feelings, but the use of placebos is linked to problems with respect to the patient-healthcare-provider relationship. However, recent studies demonstrated that even placebos without deception (open-label placebos) affect symptoms such as pain, anxiety, or emotional distress. Here we aimed to examine whether an open-label placebo may help to lose weight in obesity. Our study included fifty-seven overweight and obese patients who aimed to lose weight using a combination of diet and sports. Patients were randomly divided into two groups. Participants in the open-label placebo group received two placebos each day. A treatment-as-usual group received no pills. Primary outcome included changes of body weight. Secondary outcomes were change of eating behavior and self-management abilities. After 4 weeks we found that participants in the open-label placebo condition lost more weight than the treatment-as-usual group. Furthermore, OLP treatment affected eating behavior. No effects for self-management abilities were found. Although further research is necessary, open-label placebos might help individuals to lose weight.

Transdiagnostic phenomena of psychopathology in the context of the RDoC: protocol of a multimodal cross-sectional study.

In the past, affective and cognitive processes related to psychopathology have been examined within the boundaries of phenotype-based diagnostic labels, which has led to inconsistent findings regarding their underlying operating principles. Investigating these processes dimensionally in healthy individuals and by means of multiple modalities may provide additional insights into the psychological and neuronal mechanisms at their core. The transdiagnostic phenomena Neuroticism and Rumination are known to be closely linked. However, the exact nature of their relationship remains to be elucidated. The same applies to the associations between Hedonic Capacity, Negativity Bias and different Emotion Regulation strategies.This multimodal cross-sectional study examines the relationship of the transdiagnostic phenomena Neuroticism and Rumination as well as Hedonic Capacity, the Negativity Bias and Emotion Regulation from a RDoC (Research Domain Criteria) perspective. A total of 120 currently healthy subjects (past 12 months) will complete several questionnaires regarding personality, emotion regulation, hedonic capacity, and psychopathologies as well as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during cognitive and emotional processing, to obtain data on the circuit, behavioral and self-report level.This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between cognitive and affective processes associated with psychopathologies as well as their neuronal correlates. Ultimately, a grounded understanding of these processes could guide improvement of diagnostic labels and treatments. Limitations include the cross-sectional design and the limited variability in psychopathology scores due to the restriction of the sample to currently healthy subjects.

Neural underpinnings of open-label placebo effects in emotional distress.

While placebo effects are well-known, research in the last decade revealed intriguing effects that placebos may have beneficial effects even when given without deception. At first glance, this seems paradoxical, but several studies have reported improvements in pain, depression, or anxiety. However, it still remains unclear whether these results represent objective biological effects or simply a bias in response and what neural underpinnings are associated with the open-label placebo effects. In two studies, we address this gap by demonstrating that open-label placebos reduce self-reported emotional distress when viewing highly arousing negative pictures. This reduced emotional distress was associated with an activation of brain areas known to modulate affective states such as the periaqueductal gray, the bilateral anterior hippocampi, and the anterior cingulate cortex. We did not find any prefrontal brain activation. Furthermore, brain activation was not associated with expectation of effects. In contrast, we found that brain responses were linked to general belief in placebos. The results demonstrate that the neural mechanisms of open-label placebo effects are partly identical to the neurobiological underpinnings of conventional placebos, but our study also highlights important differences with respect to a missing engagement of prefrontal brain regions, suggesting that expectation of effects may play a less prominent role in open-label placebos.

The Acceptance/Avoidance-Promoting Experiences Questionnaire (APEQ): A theory-based approach to psychedelic drugs' effects on psychological flexibility.

BACKGROUND: Many benefits and some harms associated with psychedelic use could be attributable to these drugs' acceptance/avoidance-promoting effects and corresponding changes in psychological flexibility. Underlying psychological mechanisms are insufficiently understood. AIM: The purpose of this study was the validation of a psychological model of acceptance/avoidance-promoting psychedelic experiences, which included the development of a theory-based self-report instrument: the Acceptance/Avoidance-Promoting Experiences Questionnaire (APEQ). Its two main scales, acceptance-related experience (ACE) and avoidance-related experience (AVE), represent the theorized model's core constructs. We aimed to test the model's central assumptions of complementarity (ACE and AVE may occur alternatingly but not simultaneously, and are therefore empirically independent), intertwinedness (subaspects within ACE and AVE are mutually contingent and therefore highly inter-correlated), context-dependence (ACE and AVE depend on context factors) and interaction (longer-term outcomes depend on the interplay between ACE and AVE). METHOD: A bilingual retrospective online survey including 997 English- and 836 German-speaking participants. Each participant reported on one psychedelic experience occasioned by lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, mescaline, or ayahuasca. RESULTS: Whereas ACE and AVE were found to be relatively independent aspects of participants' reported psychedelic experiences (complementarity), their subaspects were mostly distinguishable but strongly correlated among each other (intertwinedness). Therapeutic, escapist, and hedonic use motives were differentially associated with ACE and AVE (context-dependence), which were in turn associated with retrospective changes in psychological flexibility following participants' reported experiences. The positive association between ACE and increased psychological flexibility was significantly moderated by AVE (interaction). CONCLUSION: These results provide an initial validation of the APEQ and its underlying theoretical model, suggesting the two can help clarify the psychological mechanisms of psychedelic-induced benefits and harms. Both should be further investigated in prospective-longitudinal and clinical studies.

Chronic stress and executive functioning: A specification-curve analysis.

To investigate the association between chronic stress and executive functioning (EF), we assessed 514 young to middle-aged adults in three EF tasks (i.e., Number-Letter, 2-Back, Go/Nogo) that assessed shifting, updating, and inhibition. Chronic stress was assessed by various self-report measures and hair cortisol concentrations as indicators of subjective and objective chronic stress, respectively. In order to test the association between chronic stress and EF, we fit a structural equation model with a latent common EF factor predicted by subjective and objective chronic stress on Kaplan-Meier estimates of response times. Controlling for participants' sex, age household income and the delay between cognitive testing and hair sample collection, neither subjective nor objective chronic stress showed a meaningful association with common EF. Exploratory analyses suggested a moderation effect of income on the association between subjective chronic stress and common EF, with a smaller association for high-income participants. Additionally, we conducted a specification-curve analysis on the association between chronic stress and EF to assess the influence of different analysis choices on results in our dataset. This analysis confirmed the absence of a coherent association between chronic stress and EF by showing that the majority of analytical choices produced null effects and only a small number of analytical choices produced meaningful associations (negative or positive). Taken together, our findings suggest that common EF likely remains preserved under the influence of chronic stress. Our specification-curve analysis, however, also shows that chronic stress may also have either a positive or a negative effect on EF, depending on the choice of covariates and measures of chronic stress and EF. Consequently, more research on the role of these factors for the association between chronic stress and EF is needed to avoid the interpretation of non-replicable stress-EF associations caused by analytical choices or selection bias.

Feasibility of a Home-Based Task-Switching Training in Middle-Aged Caregivers.

The current study aimed at investigating feasibility of a self-administered task-switching training in a middle-aged working population. Eighty-one caregivers (41-62 years old) were instructed to train at home 8 times either within a 7- or 14-day interval. Only 56.7% performed more than 50% of the instructed number of training sessions. However, compliant caregivers (who completed more than 4 training sessions) showed significant training gains and transfer to an untrained task-switching task. Although transfer effects to other cognitive tasks were not found, trained participants tended to report fewer everyday memory failures than a control group. In conclusion, the implementation of a home-based task-switching training in everyday life of caregivers is possible. However, there is only limited evidence for generalization of results of previous laboratory studies. Adherence and transfer to other cognitive tasks are discussed as important challenges in conveying laboratory findings into real life.

The Impostor Phenomenon: Toward a Better Understanding of the Nomological Network and Gender Differences.

The impostor phenomenon (IP) refers to the tendency to perceive oneself as intellectually incompetent and to attribute one's own success to effort-related or external factors, such as fortunate circumstances. The present study (N=209) aimed to contribute to open questions regarding gender differences in the IP and the nomological network of the IP. The results show that the consistently found key correlates of the IP, that is, lower self-esteem and higher neuroticism, could also play a role in explaining why women report higher impostor feelings than men in many studies. Moreover, the results suggest that IP is characterized by the more maladaptive, socially prescribed perfectionism, which is related to the belief that others expect perfection from oneself, whereas self-oriented perfectionism, which is characterized by a critical view on oneself, plays a smaller role in differences in the IP. Finally, a strong association with the sandbagging construct challenges the conceptualization of the IP as a genuine doubt about one's own competence, because similarly to IP, sandbaggers present themselves negatively to others, but do so for very strategic reasons in order to create a low expectation base in other individuals. Regression analysis was used to assess the incremental value of the personality factors in explaining variance in the IP. It was found that sandbagging and IP are highly related but not interchangeable.

Commercial Brain Training: Efficacy, Transfer Effects, and the Influence of Personality Traits: A Study Conducted on Healthy Young Adults.

In the present study, we investigated the effects of a four-week working memory (WM) and attention training program using commercial brain training (Synaptikon GmbH, Berlin). Sixty young healthy adults were assigned to the experimental and active control training programs. The training was conducted in a naturalistic home-based setting, while the pre- and post-examinations were conducted in a controlled laboratory setting. Transfer effects to an untrained WM task and to an untrained episodic memory task were examined. Furthermore, possible influences of personality, i.e., the five-factor model (FFM) traits and need for cognition (NFC), on training outcomes were examined. Additionally, the direct relationship between improvement in single trained tasks and improvement in the transfer tasks was investigated. Our results showed that both training groups significantly increased performance in the WM task, but only the WM training group increased their performance in the episodic memory transfer task. One of the training tasks, a visuospatial WM task, was particularly associated with improvement in the episodic memory task. Neuroticism and conscientiousness showed differential effects on the improvement in training and transfer tasks. It needs to be further examined whether these effects represent training effects or, for example, retest/practice or motivation effects.