Fmoc-Sec(Xan)-OH: synthesis and utility of Fmoc selenocysteine SPPS derivatives with acid-labile sidechain protection.

We report here the synthesis of the first selenocysteine SPPS derivatives which bear TFA-labile sidechain protecting groups. New compounds Fmoc-Sec(Xan)-OH and Fmoc-Sec(Trt)-OH are presented as useful and practical alternatives to the traditional Fmoc-Sec-OH derivatives currently available to the peptide chemist. From a bis Fmoc-protected selenocystine precursor, multiple avenues of diselenide reduction were attempted to determine the most effective method for subsequent attachment of the protecting group electrophiles. Our previously reported one-pot reduction methodology was ultimately chosen as the optimal approach toward the synthesis of these novel building blocks, and both were easily obtained in high yield and purity. Fmoc-Sec(Xan)-OH was discovered to be bench-stable for extended timeframes while the corresponding Fmoc-Sec(Trt)-OH derivative appeared to detritylate slowly when not stored at -20 °C. Both Sec derivatives were incorporated into single- and multiple-Sec-containing test peptides in order to ascertain the peptides' deprotection behavior and final form upon TFA cleavage. Single-Sec-containing test peptides were always isolated as their corresponding diselenide dimers, while dual-Sec-containing peptide sequences were afforded exclusively as their intramolecular diselenides.

Compensating for the absence of selenocysteine in high-molecular weight thioredoxin reductases: the electrophilic activation hypothesis.

Mammalian thioredoxin reductase (TR) is a pyridine disulfide oxidoreductase that uses the rare amino acid selenocysteine (Sec) in place of the more commonly used amino acid cysteine (Cys). Selenium is a Janus-faced element because it is both highly nucleophilic and highly electrophilic. Cys orthologs of Sec-containing enzymes may compensate for the absence of a Sec residue by making the active site Cys residue more (i) nucleophilic, (ii) electrophilic, or (iii) reactive by increasing both S-nucleophilicity and S-electrophilicity. It has already been shown that the Cys ortholog TR from Drosophila melanogaster (DmTR) has increased S-nucleophilicity [Gromer, S., Johansson, L., Bauer, H., Arscott, L. D., Rauch, S., Ballou, D. P., Williams, C. H., Jr., Schrimer, R. H., and Arnér, E. S (2003) Active sites of thioredoxin reductases: Why selenoproteins? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 12618-12623]. Here we present evidence that DmTR also enhances the electrophilicity of Cys490 through the use of an "electrophilic activation" mechanism. This mechanism is proposed to work by polarizing the disulfide bond that occurs between Cys489 and Cys490 in the C-terminal redox center by the placement of a positive charge near Cys489. This polarization renders the sulfur atom of Cys490 electron deficient and enhances the rate of thiol/disulfide exchange that occurs between the N- and C-terminal redox centers. Our hypothesis was developed by using a strategy of homocysteine (hCys) for Cys substitution in the Cys-Cys redox dyad of DmTR to differentiate the function of each Cys residue. The results show that hCys could substitute for Cys490 with little loss of thioredoxin reductase activity, but that substitution of hCys for Cys489 resulted in a 238-fold reduction in activity. We hypothesize that replacement of Cys489 with hCys destroys an interaction between the sulfur atom of Cys489 and His464 crucial for the proposed electrophilic activation mechanism. This electrophilic activation serves as a compensatory mechanism in the absence of the more electrophilic Sec residue. We present an argument for the importance of S-electrophilicity in Cys orthologs of selenoenzymes.

On-resin synthesis of novel arginine-isostere peptides bearing substituted amidine headgroups.

A methodology is presented for the facile synthesis of Arg-containing peptides modified at the guanidine headgroup as substituted amidine cores. This process allows for the iterative construction of these Arg isosteres while the peptide is being built out on the solid support, providing a high potential for diversity in substitution pattern in the resulting peptide. A series of N-Pmc-substituted thioamides were condensed with deprotected δ-N Orn-bearing peptides while attached to the solid support using Mukaiyama's reagent as coupling reagent, yielding isosteric Arg-containing analogs. Peptides were cleaved using trimethylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate/TFA and analyzed in their crude form in order to illustrate the amenability of this process toward production of peptide isolates in high crude purity. Arg-containing peptides having a single Arg isostere were utilized to show the general utility of this approach as well as a multiple-Arg-containing construct, illustrating the amenability of this method toward stepwise construction of differently substituted amidine headgroups within the same peptide.

2,2'-Dithiobis(5-nitropyridine) (DTNP) as an effective and gentle deprotectant for common cysteine protecting groups.

Of all the commercially available amino acid derivatives for solid phase peptide synthesis, none has a greater abundance of side-chain protection diversity than cysteine. The high reactivity of the cysteine thiol necessitates its attenuation during peptide construction. Moreover, the propensity of cysteine residues within a peptide or protein sequence to form disulfide connectivity allows the opportunity for the peptide chemist to install these disulfides iteratively as a post-synthetic manipulation through the judicious placement of orthogonal pairs of cysteine S-protection within the peptide's architecture. It is important to continuously discover new vectors of deprotection for these different blocking protocols in order to achieve the highest degree of orthogonality between the removal of one species in the presence of another. We report here a complete investigation of the scope and limitations of the deprotective potential of 2,2'-dithiobis(5-nitropyridine) (DTNP) on a selection of commercially available Cys S-protecting groups. The gentle conditions of DTNP in a TFA solvent system show a remarkable ability to deprotect some cysteine blocking functionality traditionally removable only by more harsh or forcing conditions. Beyond illustrating the deprotective ability of this reagent cocktail within a cysteine-containing peptide sequence, the utility of this method was further demonstrated through iterative disulfide formation in oxytocin and apamin test peptides. It is shown that this methodology has high potential as a stand-alone cysteine deprotection technique or in further manipulation of disulfide architecture within a more complex cysteine-containing peptide template.

The use of 2,2'-dithiobis(5-nitropyridine) (DTNP) for deprotection and diselenide formation in protected selenocysteine-containing peptides.

In contrast to the large number of sidechain protecting groups available for cysteine derivatives in solid phase peptide synthesis, there is a striking paucity of analogous selenocysteine Se-protecting groups in the literature. However, the growing interest in selenocysteine-containing peptides and proteins requires a corresponding increase in availability of synthetic routes into these target molecules. It therefore becomes important to design new sidechain protection strategies for selenocysteine as well as multiple and novel deprotection chemistry for their removal. In this paper, we outline the synthesis of two new Fmoc selenocysteine derivatives [Fmoc-Sec(Meb) and Fmoc-Sec(Bzl)] to accompany the commercially available Fmoc-Sec(Mob) derivative and incorporate them into two model peptides. Sec-deprotection assays were carried out on these peptides using 2,2'-dithiobis(5-nitropyridine) (DTNP) conditions previously described by our group. The deprotective methodology was further evaluated as to its suitability towards mediating concurrent diselenide formation in oxytocin-templated target peptides. Sec(Mob) and Sec(Meb) were found to be extremely labile to the DTNP conditions whether in the presence or absence of thioanisole, whereas Sec(Bzl) was robust to DTNP in the absence of thioanisole but quite labile in its presence. In multiple Sec-containing model peptides, it was shown that bis-Sec(Mob)-containing systems spontaneously cyclize to the diselenide using 1 eq DTNP, whereas bis-Sec(Meb) and Sec(Bzl) models required additional manipulation to induce cyclization.

Small-molecule inhibition of choline catabolism in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other aerobic choline-catabolizing bacteria.

Choline is abundant in association with eukaryotes and plays roles in osmoprotection, thermoprotection, and membrane biosynthesis in many bacteria. Aerobic catabolism of choline is widespread among soil proteobacteria, particularly those associated with eukaryotes. Catabolism of choline as a carbon, nitrogen, and/or energy source may play important roles in association with eukaryotes, including pathogenesis, symbioses, and nutrient cycling. We sought to generate choline analogues to study bacterial choline catabolism in vitro and in situ. Here we report the characterization of a choline analogue, propargylcholine, which inhibits choline catabolism at the level of Dgc enzyme-catalyzed dimethylglycine demethylation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We used genetic analyses and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance to demonstrate that propargylcholine is catabolized to its inhibitory form, propargylmethylglycine. Chemically synthesized propargylmethylglycine was also an inhibitor of growth on choline. Bioinformatic analysis suggests that there are genes encoding DgcA homologues in a variety of proteobacteria. We examined the broader utility of propargylcholine and propargylmethylglycine by assessing growth of other members of the proteobacteria that are known to grow on choline and possess putative DgcA homologues. Propargylcholine showed utility as a growth inhibitor in P. aeruginosa but did not inhibit growth in other proteobacteria tested. In contrast, propargylmethylglycine was able to inhibit choline-dependent growth in all tested proteobacteria, including Pseudomonas mendocina, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas putida, Burkholderia cepacia, Burkholderia ambifaria, and Sinorhizobium meliloti. We predict that chemical inhibitors of choline catabolism will be useful for studying this pathway in clinical and environmental isolates and could be a useful tool to study proteobacterial choline catabolism in situ.

Selenol protecting groups in organic chemistry: special emphasis on selenocysteine Se-protection in solid phase peptide synthesis.

The appearance of selenium in organic synthesis is relatively rare, and thus examples in the literature pertaining to the masking of its considerable reactivity are similarly uncommon. Greene's Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, the standard reference for the state of the art in this arena, offers no entries for selenium protective methodology, in stark comparison to its mention of the great variety of protecting groups germane to its chalcogen cousin sulfur. This scarcity of Se-protection methods makes it no less interesting and pertinent toward the construction of selenium-containing organic systems which do indeed require the iterative blocking and de-blocking of selenol functionalities. A selenium-containing system which is especially relevant is selenocysteine, as its use in Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis requires extensive protection of its selenol side chain. This review will attempt to summarize the current state of understanding with regard to selenium protection protocol in organic synthesis. Moreover, it will provide a special emphasis on selenocysteine side chain protection, comprising both the breadth of functionality used for this purpose as well as methods of deprotection.

Near-infrared laser desorption/ionization aerosol mass spectrometry for investigating primary and secondary organic aerosols under low loading conditions.

A new method, near-infrared laser desorption/ionization aerosol mass spectrometry (NIR-LDI-AMS), is described for the real time analysis of organic aerosols at atmospherically relevant mass loadings. Use of a single NIR laser pulse to vaporize and ionize particle components deposited on an aluminum probe results in minimal fragmentation to produce exclusively intact pseudomolecular anions at [M-H](-). Limits of detection (total particulate mass sampled) for oxidized compounds of relevance to atmospheric primary and secondary organic aerosol range from 89 fg for pinic acid to 8.8 pg for cholesterol. NIR-LDI-AMS was used in conjunction with the University of Vermont Environmental Chamber to study secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation from ozonolysis of limonene at total aerosol mass loadings ranging from 3.2 to 25.0 µg m(-3) and with a time resolution of several minutes. NIR-LDI-AMS permitted direct delineation between gas-phase, homogeneous SOA formation and subsequent heterogeneous aerosol processing by ozone.

Efficient method of circumventing insolubility problems with fully protected peptide carboxylates via in situ direct thioesterification reactions.

A straightforward and convenient protocol is presented for the direct thioesterification of fully protected peptide C-terminal carboxylates synthesized by Fmoc strategy. This methodology specifically serves to overcome the frequent insolubility problem of these fully protected carboxolate isolates during the thioesterification process by carrying out the reaction as an in situ procedure on the freshly cleaved 1% TFA/DCM solution of carboxylate. The direct thioesterification of a number of insolubility prone peptide systems is explored and compared with some control systems for ease of conversion to the corresponding thioesters. It is shown that although the fully protected carboxylates are indeed insoluble to varying degrees in the thioesterification reactions carried out using the classical approach, full dissolution is maintained and complete conversion is evident using the in situ methodology. This protocol serves to remove a frequent stumbling block in the preparation of peptide thioesters via the direct approach, allowing for facile entry into previously difficult systems traditionally unapproachable through this method.

Selenium in thioredoxin reductase: a mechanistic perspective.

Most high M(r) thioredoxin reductases (TRs) have the unusual feature of utilizing a vicinal disulfide bond (Cys(1)-Cys(2)) which forms an eight-membered ring during the catalytic cycle. Many eukaryotic TRs have replaced the Cys(2) position of the dyad with the rare amino acid selenocysteine (Sec). Here we demonstrate that Cys- and Sec-containing TRs are distinguished by the importance each class of enzymes places on the eight-membered ring structure in the catalytic cycle. This hypothesis was explored by studying the truncated enzyme missing the C-terminal ring structure in conjunction with oxidized peptide substrates to investigate the reduction and opening of this dyad. The peptide substrates were identical in sequence to the missing part of the enzyme, containing either a disulfide or selenylsulfide linkage, but were differentiated by the presence (cyclic) and absence (acyclic) of the ring structure. The ratio of these turnover rates informs that the ring is only of modest importance for the truncated mouse mitochondrial Sec-TR (ring/no ring = 32), while the ring structure is highly important for the truncated Cys-TRs from Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans (ring/no ring > 1000). All three enzymes exhibit a similar dependence upon leaving group pK(a) as shown by the use of the acyclic peptides as substrates. These two factors can be reconciled for Cys-TRs if the ring functions to simultaneously allow for attack by a nearby thiolate while correctly positioning the leaving group sulfur atom to accept a proton from the enzymic general acid. For Sec-TRs the ring is unimportant because the lower pK(a) of the selenol relative to a thiol obviates its need to be protonated upon S-Se bond scission and permits physical separation of the selenol and the general acid. Further study of the biochemical properties of the truncated Cys and Sec TR enzymes demonstrates that the chemical advantage conferred on the eukaryotic enzyme by a selenol is the ability to function at acidic pH.

Strategies for the solid-phase diversification of poly-L-proline-type II peptide mimic scaffolds and peptide scaffolds through guanidinylation.

A strategy for the solid-phase diversification of PPII mimic scaffolds through guanidinylation is presented. The approach involves the synthesis N-Pmc-N'-alkyl thioureas as diversification reagents. Analogues of Fmoc-Orn(Mtt)-OH can be incorporated into a growing peptide chain on Wang resin. Side chain deprotection with 1% TFA/CH2Cl2 followed by EDCI-mediated reaction of N-Pmc-N'-alkyl thioureas with the side chain amine affords arginine analogues with modified guanidine head groups. The scope, limitations, and incidental chemistry are discussed.

Intramolecular Formation of Zwitterionic Intermediates in 1,3-Diaza-Claisen Rearrangements.

Isothioureas tethered to bridged-bicyclic tertiary allylic amines can be converted to carbodiimides through reaction with Hg(II) salts. Intramolecular cyclization of the tethered tertiary allylic amines to the carbodiimides afford zwitterionic intermediates that undergo 1,3-diaza-Claisen rearrangements, affording highly substituted tricyclic guanidines.

Glutathione S-transferase pi modulates NF-κB activation and pro-inflammatory responses in lung epithelial cells.

Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-κB) is a transcription factor family critical in the activation of pro- inflammatory responses. The NF-κB pathway is regulated by oxidant-induced post-translational modifications. Protein S-glutathionylation, or the conjugation of the antioxidant molecule, glutathione to reactive cysteines inhibits the activity of inhibitory kappa B kinase beta (IKKß), among other NF-κB proteins. Glutathione S-transferase Pi (GSTP) is an enzyme that has been shown to catalyze protein S-glutathionylation (PSSG) under conditions of oxidative stress. The objective of the present study was to determine whether GSTP regulates NF-κB signaling, S-glutathionylation of IKK, and subsequent pro-inflammatory signaling. We demonstrated that, in unstimulated cells, GSTP associated with the inhibitor of NF-κB, IκBα. However, exposure to LPS resulted in a rapid loss of association between IκBα and GSTP, and instead led to a protracted association between IKKß and GSTP. LPS exposure also led to increases in the S-glutathionylation of IKKß. SiRNA-mediated knockdown of GSTP decreased IKKß-SSG, and enhanced NF-κB nuclear translocation, transcriptional activity, and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). TLK117, an isotype-selective inhibitor of GSTP, also enhanced LPS-induced NF-κB transcriptional activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine production, suggesting that the catalytic activity of GSTP is important in repressing NF-κB activation. Expression of both wild-type and catalytically-inactive Y7F mutant GSTP significantly attenuated LPS- or IKKß-induced production of GM-CSF. These studies indicate a complex role for GSTP in modulating NF-κB, which may involve S-glutathionylation of IKK proteins, and interaction with NF-κB family members. Our findings suggest that targeting GSTP is a potential avenue for regulating the activity of this prominent pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory transcription factor.

Attenuation of lung fibrosis in mice with a clinically relevant inhibitor of glutathione-S-transferase π.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a debilitating lung disease characterized by excessive collagen production and fibrogenesis. Apoptosis in lung epithelial cells is critical in IPF pathogenesis, as heightened loss of these cells promotes fibroblast activation and remodeling. Changes in glutathione redox status have been reported in IPF patients. S-glutathionylation, the conjugation of glutathione to reactive cysteines, is catalyzed in part by glutathione-S-transferase π (GSTP). To date, no published information exists linking GSTP and IPF to our knowledge. We hypothesized that GSTP mediates lung fibrogenesis in part through FAS S-glutathionylation, a critical event in epithelial cell apoptosis. Our results demonstrate that GSTP immunoreactivity is increased in the lungs of IPF patients, notably within type II epithelial cells. The FAS-GSTP interaction was also increased in IPF lungs. Bleomycin- and AdTGFß-induced increases in collagen content, α-SMA, FAS S-glutathionylation, and total protein S-glutathionylation were strongly attenuated in Gstp-/- mice. Oropharyngeal administration of the GSTP inhibitor, TLK117, at a time when fibrosis was already apparent, attenuated bleomycin- and AdTGFß-induced remodeling, α-SMA, caspase activation, FAS S-glutathionylation, and total protein S-glutathionylation. GSTP is an important driver of protein S-glutathionylation and lung fibrosis, and GSTP inhibition via the airways may be a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of IPF.

A comprehensive one-pot synthesis of protected cysteine and selenocysteine SPPS derivatives.

A proof-of-principle methodology is presented in which all commercially-available cysteine (Cys) and selenocysteine (Sec) solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) derivatives are synthesized in high yield from easily prepared protected dichalcogenide precursors. A Zn-mediated biphasic reduction process applied to a series of four bis-N(α)-protected dichalcogenide compounds allows facile conversion to their corresponding thiol and selenol intermediates followed by insitu S- or Se-alkylation with various electrophiles to directly access twenty one known Cys and Sec SPPS derivatives. Most of these derivatives were able to be precipitated in crude form out of petroleum ether in sufficient purity for direct use as peptide building blocks. Subsequent incorporation of these derivatives into peptide models nicely illustrates their viability and applicability toward SPPS.

Oxidative processing of latent Fas in the endoplasmic reticulum controls the strength of apoptosis.

We recently demonstrated that S-glutathionylation of the death receptor Fas (Fas-SSG) amplifies apoptosis (V. Anathy et al., J. Cell Biol. 184:241-252, 2009). In the present study, we demonstrate that distinct pools of Fas exist in cells. Upon ligation of surface Fas, a separate pool of latent Fas in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) underwent rapid oxidative processing characterized by the loss of free sulfhydryl content (Fas-SH) and resultant increases in S-glutathionylation of Cys294, leading to increases of surface Fas. Stimulation with FasL rapidly induced associations of Fas with ERp57 and glutathione S-transferase π (GSTP), a protein disulfide isomerase and catalyst of S-glutathionylation, respectively, in the ER. Knockdown or inhibition of ERp57 and GSTP1 substantially decreased FasL-induced oxidative processing and S-glutathionylation of Fas, resulting in decreased death-inducing signaling complex formation and caspase activity and enhanced survival. Bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis was accompanied by increased interactions between Fas-ERp57-GSTP1 and S-glutathionylation of Fas. Importantly, fibrosis was largely prevented following short interfering RNA-mediated ablation of ERp57 and GSTP. Collectively, these findings illuminate a regulatory switch, a ligand-initiated oxidative processing of latent Fas, that controls the strength of apoptosis.

Synthesis of peptide substrates for mammalian thioredoxin reductase.

Mammalian thioredoxin reductase (TR) catalyzes the reduction of the redox-active disulfide bond of thioredoxin (Trx) and is similar in structure and mechanism to glutathione reductase except for a C-terminal 16-amino acid extension containing a rare vicinal selenylsulfide bond. This vicinal selenylsulfide bond is essentially a substrate for the enzyme's N-terminal redox center. Here we report the synthesis of peptide substrates for the truncated enzyme missing the C-terminal redox center. We developed a procedure for the synthesis of peptides containing cyclic vicinal disulfide/selenylsulfide bonds as well as their corresponding acyclic heterodimers. Vicinal disulfide bonds form eight-membered ring structures and are difficult to synthesize owing to their propensity to dimerize during oxidation. Our procedure makes use of two key improvements for on-resin disulfide bond formation presented previously by Galande and coworkers (Galande AK, Weissleder R, Tung C-H. An effective method of on-resin disulfide bond formation in peptides. J. Comb. Chem. 2005; 7: 174-177). First, the addition of an amine base to the deprotection solution allows the complete removal of the StBu group, allowing it to be replaced with a 5-Npys group. The second enhancement is the direct use of a Cys(Mob) or Sec(Mob) derivative as the nucleophilic partner instead of utilizing a naked sulfhydryl or selenol. These improvements result in the formation of a vicinal disulfide (or selenylsulfide) bond in high purity and yield. A direct comparison with the Galande procedure is presented. We also present a novel strategy for the formation of an acyclic, interchain selenylsulfide-linked peptide (linking H-PTVTGC-OH and H-UG-OH). Cysteine analogs of the cyclic and acyclic peptides were also synthesized. The results show that the ring structure contributes a factor of 52 to the rate, but the presence of selenium in the peptide is more important to catalysis than the presence of the ring.

A viable synthesis of N-methyl cysteine.

While a number of methods exist for the production of N-methyl amino acid derivatives, the methods for the production of N-methyl cysteine (MeCys) derivatives are suboptimal as they either have low yields or lead to significant sulfhydryl deprotection during the synthetic protocol. This article focuses on the generation of MeCys and its subsequent use in Fmoc solid-phase peptide synthesis for the generation of N-methyl cystine containing peptides. Various methods for amino methylation of cysteine, in the presence of acid labile or acid stable sulfhydryl protecting groups, are compared and contrasted. Production of MeCys is best attained through formation of an oxazolidinone precursor obtained via cyclization of Fmoc--Cys(StBu)--OH. Following oxazolidinone ring opening, iminium ion reduction generates Fmoc--MeCys(StBu)--OH with an overall yield of 91%. The key to this procedure is using an electronically neutral Cys-derivative, as other polar Cys-derivatives gave poor results using the oxazolidinone procedure. Subsequently, the Fmoc--MeCys(StBu)--OH building block was used to replace a Cys residue with a MeCys residue in two peptide fragments that correspond to the active sites of glutaredoxin and thioredoxin reductase. The examples used here highlight the use of a MeCys(StBu) derivative, which allows for facile on-resin conversion to a MeCys(5-Npys) residue that can be subsequently used for intramolecular disulfide bond formation with concomitant cleavage of the peptide from the solid support. (c) 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers (Pept Sci) 90: 61-68, 2008. This article was originally published online as an accepted preprint. The "Published Online" date corresponds to the preprint version. You can request a copy of the preprint by emailing the Biopolymers editorial office at biopolymers@wiley.com.

Studies on deprotection of cysteine and selenocysteine side-chain protecting groups.

We present here a simple method for deprotecting p-methoxybenzyl groups and acetamidomethyl groups from the side-chains of cysteine and selenocysteine. This method uses the highly elecrophilic, aromatic disulfides 2,2'-dithiobis(5-nitropyridine) (DTNP) and 2,2'-dithiodipyridine (DTP) dissolved in TFA to effect removal of these heretofore difficult-to-remove protecting groups. The dissolution of these reagents in TFA, in fact, serves to 'activate' them for the deprotection reaction because protonation of the nitrogen atom of the pyridine ring makes the disulfide bond more electrophilic. Thus, these reagents can be added to any standard cleavage cocktail used in peptide synthesis.The p-methoxybenzyl group of selenocysteine is easily removed by DTNP. Only sub-stoichiometric amounts of DTNP are required to cause full removal of the p-methoxybenzyl group, with as little as 0.2 equivalents necessary to effect 70% removal of the protecting group. In order to remove the p-methoxybenzyl group from cysteine, 2 equivalents of DTNP and the addition of thioanisole was required to effect removal. Thioanisole was absolutely required for the reaction in the case of the sulfur-containing amino acids, while it was not required for selenocysteine. The results were consistent with thioanisole acting as a catalyst. The acetamidomethyl group of cysteine could also be removed using DTNP, but required the addition of > 15 equivalents to be effective. DTP was less robust as a deprotection reagent. We also demonstrate that this chemistry can be used in a simultaneous cyclization/deprotection reaction between selenocysteine and cysteine residues protected by p-methoxybenzyl groups to form a selenylsulfide bond, demonstrating future high utility of the deprotection method.