Screening for neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury with the spinal cord injury pain instrument (SCIPI): a preliminary validation study.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional. OBJECTIVE: To preliminarily evaluate the validity of an interview-based spinal cord injury (SCI) neuropathic pain screening instrument. SETTING: Six university-based SCI centers in the United States. METHODS: Clinician diagnoses of neuropathic pain (NP) and non-neuropathic pain subtypes were collected independently of descriptions of the pain characteristics provided by the persons with SCI by using the Spinal Cord Injury Pain Instrument (SCIPI); SCIPI information and physician diagnoses for 82 pain sites of which they were most confident were subsequently compared. RESULTS: Four of the SCIPI items correlated significantly with the NP subtype as determined by the clinician. The best cutoff score for identifying NP was an endorsement of two or more of these four items. Using this cutoff, sensitivity of the SCIPI was 78%, specificity was 73% and overall diagnostic accuracy was 76%. CONCLUSION: In this preliminary study, the SCIPI, which can be administered by a nonclinician, appears to have good sensitivity, specificity and diagnostic accuracy in a SCI population; it may have a role as a screening tool for NP after SCI. Further study is needed.

Secondary health conditions in individuals aging with SCI: terminology, concepts and analytic approaches.

STUDY DESIGN: Literature review. OBJECTIVES: Utilizing individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) as a representative population for physical disability, this paper: (1) reviews the history of the concept of secondary conditions as it applies to the health of individuals aging with long-term disabilities; (2) proposes a definition of secondary health conditions (SHCs) and a conceptual model for understanding the factors that are related to SHCs as individuals age with a disability; and (3) discusses the implications of the model for the assessment of SHCs and for developing interventions that minimize their frequency, severity and negative effects on the quality of life of individuals aging with SCI and other disabilities. METHODS: Key findings from research articles, reviews and book chapters addressing the concept of SHCs in individuals with SCI and other disabilities were summarized to inform the development of a conceptual approach for measuring SCI-related SHCs. CONCLUSIONS: Terms used to describe health conditions secondary to SCI and other physical disabilities are used inconsistently throughout the literature. This inconsistency represents a barrier to improvement, measurement and for the development of effective interventions to reduce or prevent these health conditions and mitigate their effects on participation and quality of life. A working definition of the term SHCs is proposed for use in research with individuals aging with SCI, with the goal of facilitating stronger evidence and increased knowledge upon which policy and practice can improve the health and well-being of individuals aging with a disability.

Determining differences in post discharge outcomes among catastrophically and noncatastrophically sponsored outpatients with spinal cord injury.

This study tested differences in functional independence status, level of psychologic distress and extent of handicap experienced after discharge from inpatient rehabilitation among a group of 125 outpatients with spinal cord injury (SCI) sponsored by one of three types of rehabilitation insurance payors: catastrophic (Michigan Automobile No-Fault and Workers' Disability Compensation), Medicaid and third-party privates. Outcome measures included the functional independence measure, the brief symptom inventory and the Craig handicap assessment reporting technique. Insurance data was obtained via medical chart reviews and interviews that were conducted either face-to-face or by telephone, using the benefits coverage inventory. No differences in terms of post discharge functional independence across subjects sponsored by the three payors was found when controlling for neurologic status. However, SCI subjects sponsored by different payors reported receiving different amounts of benefits. Subjects also differed on the extent of psychologic distress experienced after discharge and the extent of their handicaps. SCI subjects sponsored by Medicaid reported receiving fewer benefits, being more distressed and experiencing greater handicap in comparison to others. Third-party privately sponsored subjects, conversely, experienced less handicap and distress than did the study's other subjects.

Predicting depression and psychological distress in persons with spinal cord injury based on indicators of handicap.

This study examined whether experiences of handicap influence levels of depression and distress among persons with spinal cord injury (SCI) during the years after initial discharge from rehabilitation. SCI outpatients (163), who had received inpatient treatment at one of two rehabilitation centers in Michigan and who were between 2 to 7 years since injury, participated in the study. Measures of depression, of psychological distress and of handicap were collected during 2 consecutive years utilizing the Zung Self-Rating Scale, the Brief Symptom Inventory and the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique (CHART) in conjunction with the Perceived Handicap Questionnaire (PHQ), respectively. According to the study's findings, depressed/distressed SCI subjects reported spending more hours in bed (P < 0.01), fewer days out of the house (P < 0.03) and receiving more paid personal care assistance (P < 0.02) than did other subjects. They also expended more for general medical expenses (P < 0.001) and reported less access to readily available transportation (P < 0.003). CHART total scores, reflecting a simple objective measure of handicap as described by Whiteneck et al. (Whiteneck GG, Charlifue SW, Gerhart KA, Overholser JD, Richardson GN: Guide for Use of the CHART: Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique. Craig Hospital, CO, 1988) were significantly associated with both distress and depression as measured during the second year of data collection. Other significant predictors of depression and distress included subjects' self-perceived handicap (measured by the PHQ), gender, marital status and age.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Predictors of psychologic distress one year after spinal cord injury.

This study investigated predictors of psychologic distress at 1 year after injury. The brief symptom inventory, a symptom checklist that provides an overall index of distress, was administered to 119 spinal cord-injured patients. All patients had diagnoses of recent, traumatic SCI and had been admitted for initial inpatient rehabilitation between 1985 and 1990. Results showed levels of psychologic distress to be significantly higher 1 year after injury when compared with results obtained on admission and at discharge from the inpatient rehabilitation program. The prevalence rate for elevated distress after injury was 28%. Significant predictors of psychologic distress 1 year after injury included level of distress at admission, neurologic completeness of SCI, type of rehabilitation insurance payor (catastrophic v noncatastrophic), occupational status before SCI and participation status in an inpatient independent living program. A multiple regression model with nine independent variables was specified that explained 63% of the variance in psychologic distress measured after injury.

Insurance benefits coverage for persons with spinal cord injuries: determining differences across payors.

This investigation represents a preliminary step in determining differences in benefits coverage among three types of rehabilitation insurance payors (Catastrophic payors, which include Automobile No-Fault and Workers' Disability Compensation; Medicaid; and Third-party private payors). Subjects in this study were 122 spinal cord injury (SCI) outpatients who received their initial rehabilitation at the University of Michigan Medical Center and at the Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan. Insurance benefits received by them were examined across the following areas: accessible housing, transportation, personal attendant care services, professional outpatient services and adapted equipment. Results indicated differences across the three payors, with catastrophically-sponsored SCI outpatients receiving more benefits than SCI outpatients sponsored by public Medicaid or by private third-party insurance. Implications and recommendations for further studies are briefly discussed.

Prevalence and associated features of depression and psychological distress in polio survivors.

This cross-sectional study examines the prevalence of psychological distress and depression among 116 polio survivors. It investigates demographic, medical, and coping differences between subjects with (n = 17) and without (n = 99) these symptoms. Subjects were administered the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), the Coping with Disability Inventory (CDI), and a questionnaire about their polio histories. The BSI provided measures of psychological distress and depression that defined the subgroups. The CDI assessed coping behaviors. BSI scores for the overall sample were within the normal range indicating no major distress, depression, nor elevated somatic complaints. Several significant differences were found between the two subgroups. On average, depressed/distressed subjects reported an increase in pain (p < .01) and further deterioration of their medical status since the time of their physical best subsequent to the onset of polio (p < .01). They consistently rated their health as poorer than did nondepressed/nondistressed subjects (p < .001). They also reported less satisfaction with life and their occupational status (p < .001) and displayed poorer coping behaviors combined (p < .001). Selected variables such as life satisfaction, pain, decrease in activity, and current living situation accounted for 51% of the variance when predicting distress and depression among this group of polio survivors.

Coping with the late effects: differences between depressed and nondepressed polio survivors.

This study examined differences between depressed and nondepressed individuals with a history of paralytic poliomyelitis in terms of demographics, health status and coping strategies. The prevalence of distress and depression in this group of 116 polio survivors was determined. Subjects completed the Brief Symptom Inventory, the Coping with Disability Inventory and a questionnaire concerning their polio histories and self-perceptions of health. Medical assessments were performed by physicians. Only 15.8% of the sample had scores indicating depression and elevated distress. Depressed/distressed polio survivors were more likely to: be living alone, be experiencing further health status deterioration, seek professional help, view their health as poor, report greater pain, be less satisfied with their occupational status and their lives in general and exhibit poorer coping outcome behaviors in relation to their disability. Three factors in coping with the late effects of polio were identified through a factor analysis of the Coping with Disability Inventory: positive self-acceptance, information seeking/sharing about the disability and social activism. Differences between depressed/distressed and other polio survivors were found across these three factors, with depressed/distressed subjects having significantly lower coping scores. These and other results are discussed.

The effects of insurance benefits coverage on functional and psychosocial outcomes after spinal cord injury.

This retrospective study examined the effects of type of payor (ie, catastrophic, Medicaid, and private) and extent of benefits and independent living (IL) resources received on functional and psychosocial outcomes after spinal cord injury (SCI). One hundred seventy SCI persons with dates of injury from 1985 to 1990 and who were on average 4 years after their initial discharge from rehabilitation participated in the study. Benefits and resources received from discharge to 2 years post-injury in housing, transportation, personal care assistance (PCA), and equipment were assessed. Outcome variables included measures of psychological distress, self-esteem, and participation in physical and work/school activities. Extent of benefits received after SCI was found to be both a function of source of payor and of subject's neurological classification. While an effect of total benefits received could not be detected on SCI subjects post-discharge physical activity, and benefits paid by self only were associated with physical activity. Transportation benefits received and type of payor were positively associated with work/school outcomes. Younger subjects, sponsored by private payors, and with incomplete injuries were more likely to be working or going to school after SCI. Benefits and payor were also associated with psychological distress. Privately sponsored subjects were less distressed, whereas those sponsored by Medicaid were most distressed. Extent of benefits received was found to be inversely associated with distress and self-esteem. Persons with lower self-esteem received more postdischarge benefits, whereas those who paid for their own benefits and those who received communication equipment benefits paid by insurance, reported higher self-esteem. Implications for possible policy changes based on these results are discussed.

Types of spiritual well-being among persons with chronic illness: their relation to various forms of quality of life.

OBJECTIVES: Derive a spiritual well-being classification and thereby enhance understanding of the relation between spiritual well-being, quality of life (QOL), and health among persons with chronic illness or disability. DESIGN: Cluster analyses were performed to develop a spiritual well-being classification. Analysis of variance was used to compare cluster groups on various dimensions of QOL. SETTING: Part of a larger QOL study conducted at a midwestern medical center. PATIENTS: A convenience sample of 216 inpatients: amputation (n = 74), postpolio (n = 37), spinal cord injury (n = 34), breast cancer (n = 36), and prostate cancer (n = 35). Minors were excluded from the study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS), Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy (FACT), Functional Living Index-Cancer (FLIC), Sickness Impact Profile (SIP), Medical Outcome Survey-Short Form (SF-36), and the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). RESULTS: Three types of spiritual well-being were identified: religious (n = 146), existential (n = 37), and nonspiritual (n = 30). Significant cluster differences (p < .03 to p < .001) were observed across all QOL domains and life satisfaction. Compared with the other cluster groups, the nonspiritual group reported significantly lower levels of QOL and life satisfaction and the highest proportion of health status change with respect to both improvement and decline in health. CONCLUSIONS: Three types of spiritual well-being were empirically identified in this sample. Subtypes differed significantly with respect to various aspects of QOL. Further research is needed to validate this classification and to determine if type of spiritual well-being has a causal effect on treatment outcome or on the recovery process.