Differences in pacing behaviour between global championship medal performances and world records in men's and women's middle- and long-distance running track events.

The differences in pacing demands between track distance-running championship and meet (e.g., World Record [WR]) races have not been specified yet in the current literature. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine pacing behaviour differences between WRs and global championship (i.e., World Championships and Olympic Games) medal performances (GCMs) in middle- and long-distance running events. Percentages of mean race section speeds were compared through analysis of variance between men's and women's 169 WRs and 189 GCMs over 800 m, 1500 m, 3000 m steeplechase, 5000 m and 10,000 m. U-shaped and negative pacing approaches are observed during men's and women's 1500 m WRs and GCMs, respectively. The first and third 400 m of men's and women's 1500 m GCMs were relatively slower and faster, respectively (p ≤ 0.05, 1.31 ≤ d ≤ 1.69). Even profiles are followed during women's 3000 m steeplechase WRs and GCMs, whereas positive approaches were adopted in men's GCMs. Finally, whereas 5000 m and 10,000 m GCMs were finished with a fast endspurt, WRs had a U-shaped profile in men, with differences between the initial and last race stages (p ≤ 0.01, 1.20 ≤ d ≤ 3.66), and an even profile in women. Coaches should consider the different pacing demands existing among meet and global championship races to specifically implement training characteristics targeting either goal type.

Comparison of anaerobic speed reserve and maximal aerobic speed methods to prescribe short format high-intensity interval training.

The purpose of the study was to compare the degree of intersubject variability in the cardiorespiratory, metabolic, and perceptual responses to high-intensity interval training (HIIT) prescribed based on the relative anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) or maximal aerobic speed (MAS) and to identify the optimal % ASR for execution of such HIIT. Seventeen male physical education students (age: 23.6 ± 1.1 years, height: 180.2 ± 5.9, body mass: 78.3 ± 8.1 kg; % body fat: 14.3 ± 2.7%) volunteered to execute three randomly scheduled 10-min HIIT exercises at 110% vVO2max , Δ15% ASR, or Δ25% ASR. Analysis of variance for repeated measures and the least significant difference post-hoc test were used to compare the physiological responses and the mean of individual residuals between the training sessions. The coefficients of variation (CV) of time spent ≥90% of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max ) and maximal heart rate (HRmax ), peak VO2 , mean VO2 , peak HR, mean HR, blood lactate [La], and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were 48.7%, 35.9%, 9.3%, 7%, 3.5%, 4.8%, 32%, and 16.9% during 110% vVO2max , 47.2%, 31%, 7.5%, 6.7%, 3.9%, 4.6%, 24.2%, and 14.6% during Δ15% ASR, and 48.1%, 31.5%, 7.6%, 8.4%, 3.6%, 4.1%, 20.2%, and 3.4% during Δ25% ASR session, respectively. Only the residuals in RPE were significantly (p < 0.001) higher in 110% vVO2max and Δ15% ASR in comparison to Δ25% ASR. Time spent ≥90% HRmax /VO2max was maximized during Δ15% ASR session, albeit this was not significantly different from other sessions. The ASR-based method leads to reduced CVs of physiological and perceptual responses during 10-min HIIT; however, only reductions in [La] and RPE may be considered practically meaningful. Practitioners can use vVO2max for prescription of 10-min HIIT session comprised of 15-s work and passive recovery intervals.

Expanding Knowledge About the Effect of Measurement Time on Session Rating of Perceived Exertion.

ABSTRACT: Rodríguez-Marroyo, JA, Blanco, P, Foster, C, Villa, JG, and Carballo-Leyenda, B. Expanding knowledge about the effect of measurement time on session rating of perceived exertion. J Strength Cond Res 37(1): 230-233, 2023-The purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of postexercise rating times (from 0 minutes to 4 weeks) on session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE). Twenty-five athletes (12 women and 13 men) from different sports (sprinting, endurance running, cycling, and volleyball) were involved in this study. At least 3 training sessions per subject were quantified based on sRPE using a visual analog scale. The scale was administered immediately after, at 5, 10, 20, and 30 minutes, 24, 48, and 72 hours, and 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks postexercise. In addition, the effect of rating time on sRPE was studied according to the training intensity. For this, the training sessions were classified (based on the 30-minute rating) as easy (sRPE < 3), moderate (sRPE 3-5), and hard (sRPE > 5). A significant (p < 0.001) main effect of the postexercise rating time on sRPE was found. There were significant (p < 0.05) differences between sRPE obtained at 30 minutes and those obtained immediately after hard training sessions and at 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks postexercise. There was no significant effect of rating time on sRPE in the easy and moderate training sessions. In conclusion, the present data suggest that athletes' sRPE may be obtained in a valid and reliable manner within a time frame of 5 minutes to 72 hours posttraining. The effect of postexercise rating time on sRPE seems to be conditioned by the training intensity, especially in those training sessions whose training intensity was high (sRPE > 5).

Validation of session ratings of perceived exertion for quantifying training load in karate kata sessions.

This study was intended to investigate the associations between session Ratings of Perceived Exertion (sRPE) and Edwards' training load (TL) and Banister training impulse (TRIMP) in order to determine the validity of the sRPE method for TL assessment in karate kata discipline. Eight elite karate kata athletes, members of the national karate team, took part in this study. A multistage 20 m shuttle run test was performed to determine maximal heart rate (HRmax). Subsequently, the subjects performed 3 different kata training sessions separated by minimally 48 hours. To calculate Edwards TL, Banister TRIMP and sRPE, heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored during the sessions and RPE of the entire session was collected 30 minutes after each training session. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was used for determining associations between TL variables. Edwards TL (p = 0.064) and Banister TRIMP (p = 0.102) were not, but sRPE was significantly different between each training session (p < 0.001). There were no significant correlations between sRPE and Edwards TL (r = 0.53, p = 0.18) or Banister TRIMP (r = 0.13, p = 0.77) when data from all training sessions were pooled. A significant correlation was obtained between sRPE and Edwards TL (r = 0.71, p = 0.04) in situational training session, whereas in technical training session sRPE was significantly correlated with Banister TRIMP (r = 0.82, p = 0.01). HR-based methods for TL assessment are not able to discriminate between kata training sessions and, therefore, sRPE may be more useful for coaches to monitor TL in karate kata athletes.

10 km performance prediction by metabolic and mechanical variables: influence of performance level and post-submaximal running jump potentiation.

We aimed to develop models to explain performance and pacing during a 10-km running trial.Well-trained runners (n = 27, VO2max = 62.3 ± 4.5 mL·kg-1·min-1) divided into High (HPG, T10km = 33.9 ± 1.2 min, n = 9) and Low (LPG, T10km = 37.9 ± 1.2 min, n = 18) performers completed, in different days, the half squat and loaded squat jump (LSJ) exercises (1st day), an incremental test and a submaximal running bout to induce jump potentiation (2nd day), and a 10-km time trial (3rd day). Pacing was significantly different between performance groups (p < 0.05). The inclusion of mechanical and metabolic variables increased the explained variance in performance (LPG, r2adj = 0.87, p < 0.001; HPG, r2adj = 0.99 p < 0.01). Analysis between potentiation and non-potentiation groups revealed significant differences for the speed in the last 400 m (p = 0.02), and in the final RPE (p = 0.03). Performance and pacing can be explained by combining metabolic and mechanical variables and should be controlled by performance level. The relationship between jump potentiation and speed during the last 400 m may suggest that post-activation performance enhancement could be involved in pacing regulation.

How do swimmers pace the 400 m freestyle and what affects the pacing pattern?

To describe the pacing pattern of elite 400 m freestyle swimmers, understand how athletes select the first half compared to their 200-m race pace, and correlate critical speed (CS) and D' with pacing parameters. The best all-time 400 m performances were obtained, and 200 m performances were retrieved from the same competition. Twenty-four performances were selected and, when possible, 50 m-splits were obtained. CS and D' were calculated based on the 200 m and 400 m performances. Most athletes adopted a parabolic pacing pattern. Performance in the 400 m correlated with that of the 200 m (rho = 0.418, p = 0.042), the % difference between 200 m performance and 200 m split correlated with CS (rho = -0.595, p = 0.002) and with D' (rho = 0.808, p < 0.001). The correlation between D' and % difference between average speed and CS was nearly perfect (rho = 1.000, p < 0.001). Recommendations of having the first half of the 400 m 4-5 s slower than their 200 m race do not seem to be appropriate for all swimmers and depends on physiological abilities.

Monitoring Training Load and Perceived Recovery in Female Basketball: Implications for Training Design.

Sansone, P, Tschan, H, Foster, C, and Tessitore, A. Monitoring training load and perceived recovery in female basketball: Implications for training design. J Strength Cond Res 34(10): 2929-2936, 2020-This study investigated the relationship between internal training load and perceived recovery of semi-professional female basketball players during the competitive season. Eleven female players were monitored for 14 weeks during the in-season phase. For each event (training and game), data were collected as follows: (a) Total Quality Recovery (TQR) score before the event (TQRpre); (b) session Rating of Perceived Exertion (sRPE) 20 minutes after completion of the event, to calculate training load (s-TL) of the event; and (c) TQR scores 12 (TQRpost12) and 24 hours (TQRpost24) after the event. Data were analyzed for daily, weekly, and mesocycle (regular season; regional play-off; and national play-off) time frames. Daily analysis showed that: TQRpost12 was lower than TQRpre (p < 0.001) and TQRpost24 (p < 0.001); s-TL had a moderate negative correlation with TQRpost12 (r = -0.48, p = 0.002); the difference between TQRpre and RPE (TS-Δ) had a very large positive correlation with TQRpost12 (r = 0.70, p < 0.001); and TQRpost24 was not significantly correlated with training parameters. Weekly analysis highlighted a very large negative correlation between the acute:chronic workload ratio and TQR collected at the start of the following week (TQRfw) (r = -0.86, p < 0.001). Finally, although weekly TL and TQRfw did not differ between mesocycles, their correlation increased in the later seasonal phases. This study demonstrated negative relationships between training load and recovery of semi-professional female basketball players at daily, weekly, and mesocycle levels. Therefore, concurrently monitoring training and recovery with the sRPE method and TQR scale is recommended for designing training schedules in basketball.

Lower Cardiovascular Stress during Resistance Training Performed with Inter-Repetition Rests in Elderly Coronary Patients.

Background and Objectives: Hemodynamic stress during resistance training is often a reason why this training method is not used in cardiac patients. A lifting protocol that imposes rests between repetitions (IRRT) may provide less hemodynamic stress compared to traditional resistance training (TT). The aim of this study was to verify differences between set configurations on hemodynamic stress responses in resistance training. Materials and Methods: We compared hemodynamic (heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), and rate pressure product (RPP)) responses assessed with the auscultatory method in elderly (age = 75.3 ± 7.3 years) coronary male patients who were participating in a cardiac rehabilitation program allocated to either TT or IRRT with the same load (kg) and total number of repetitions (24) in the bilateral leg extension exercise. Results: IRRT resulted in significant lower values than TT for RPP at repetitions 8 (p = 0.024; G = 0.329; 95% CI: 0.061, 0.598) and 16 (p = 0.014; G = 0.483; 95% CI: 0.112, 0.854). Conclusions: IRRT appears to be a viable method of reducing the hemodynamic response (i.e., RPP) to resistance training and, thus, may contribute to the safety of cardiac rehabilitation programs. Further studies with more cardiac patients and other measurement techniques should be conducted to confirm these important findings.

Syncope Episodes and Blood Flow Restriction Training.

The combination of low-load resistance training [or more recently, neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES)] with a moderate local blood flow restriction (BFR) is becoming a widespread training and rehabilitation method. Scientific data indicate the overall safety of BFR, at least in healthy young people. However, it has been associated with side effects, usually minor, and further research is warranted regarding the safety and efficacy of this technique, especially in clinical populations. We found 3 syncope/presyncopal episodes among 21 healthy people (9 men), all occurring in men and during familiarization sessions (in which BFR was applied alone) but not thereafter (BFR sessions combined with NMES): 1 subject experienced a brief syncope and 2 other subjects exhibited presyncopal symptoms (sweating, lightheadedness, and pallor). Our cases are evidence that cardiovascular complications may emerge during BFR. Caution is thus needed in the application of BFR, and gentle familiarization with this training modality is also recommended.

Performance and physiological analysis of 500 km non-stop cycling: a case study.

Ultra-endurance sports have gained popularity over the last years. In this case, a well-trained cyclist completed 503.5 km non-stop (33.3 km.h-1). Speed and power output were reduced during the trial, being the reduction of power attributable to changes in pedal velocity rather than pedal forces. Heart rate (HR) showed an initial cardiovascular drift and progressively decreased independently of power. A decreased HR variability, a marked inflammatory response, signs of muscle damage and alterations of the haematological profile were observed after the trial. These adverse physiological effects were still present 24-48 h after exercise. A reduction in handgrip maximal voluntary contraction was observed immediately after the trial and 24 h later despite these muscles being minimally active during exercise. These findings show the high levels of stress to which the organism is subjected during ultra-endurance exercise even in the case of a trained cyclist.

Effect of Wearing the Elevation Training Mask on Aerobic Capacity, Lung Function, and Hematological Variables.

Altitude training and respiratory muscle training (RMT) have been reported to improve performance in elite and well-trained athletes. Several devices (altitude and RMT) have been developed to help athletes gain the competitive edge. The Elevation Training Mask 2.0 (ETM) purportedly simulates altitude training and has been suggested to increase aerobic capacity (VO2max), endurance performance, and lung function. Twenty-four moderately trained subjects completed 6 weeks of high-intensity cycle ergometer training. Subjects were randomized into a mask (n = 12) or control (n = 12) group. Pre and post-training tests included VO2max, pulmonary function, maximal inspiration pressure, hemoglobin and hematocrit. No significant differences were found in pulmonary function or hematological variables between or within groups. There was a significant improvement in VO2max and PPO in both the control (13.5% and 9.9%) and mask (16.5% and 13.6%) groups. There was no difference in the magnitude of improvement between groups. Only the mask group had significant improvements in ventilatory threshold (VT) (13.9%), power output (PO) at VT (19.3%), respiratory compensation threshold (RCT) (10.2%), and PO at RCT (16.4%) from pre to post-testing. The trends for improvements in VT and PO at VT between groups were similar to improvements in RCT and PO at RCT, but did not reach statistical significance (VT p = 0.06, PO at VT p = 0.170). Wearing the ETM while participating in a 6-week high-intensity cycle ergometer training program does not appear to act as a simulator of altitude, but more like a respiratory muscle training device. Wearing the ETM may improve specific markers of endurance performance beyond the improvements seen with interval training alone. Key pointsWearing the ETM during a 6-week high-intensity cycle ergometer training program may improve performance variables, such as VO2max, PPO, VT, PO at VT, RCT and PO at RCT.Wearing the ETM did not improve lung function, inspiratory muscle strength, or stimulate changes in hemoglobin or hematocrit levels.The ETM does not simulate altitude, but works more like an respiratory training device.

Evidence that the talk test can be used to regulate exercise intensity.

The Talk Test (TT) has been shown to be a surrogate of the ventilatory threshold and to be a viable alternative to standard methods of prescribing exercise training intensity. The TT has also been shown to be responsive to manipulations known to change physiologic function including blood donation and training. Whether the TT can be used independently to regulated training intensity is not known. Physically active volunteers (N = 16) performed an incremental exercise test to identify stages of the TT (Last Positive [LP], Equivocal [EQ], and Negative [NEG]). In subsequent, randomly ordered, 30-minute steady-state runs, the running velocity was regulated solely by "clamping" the TT response desired and then monitoring the response of conventional markers of exercise intensity (heart rate, blood lactate, rating of perceived exertion). All subjects were able to complete the LP stage, but only 13 of 16 and 2 of 16 subjects were able to complete the EQ and NEG stages, respectively. Physiologic responses were broadly within those predicted from the incremental exercise test and within the appropriate range of physiologic responses for exercise training. Thus, in addition to correlating with convenient physiological markers, the TT can be used proactively to guide exercise training intensity. The LP stage produced training intensities compatible with appropriate training intensity in healthy adults and with recovery sessions or long duration training sessions in athletes. The EQ and NEG stages produced intensities compatible with higher intensity training in athletes. The results demonstrate that the TT can be used as a primary method to control exercise training intensity.

The Effects of High Intensity Interval Training vs Steady State Training on Aerobic and Anaerobic Capacity.

UNLABELLED: High intensity interval training (HIIT) has become an increasingly popular form of exercise due to its potentially large effects on exercise capacity and small time requirement. This study compared the effects of two HIIT protocols vs steady-state training on aerobic and anaerobic capacity following 8-weeks of training. Fifty-five untrained college-aged subjects were randomly assigned to three training groups (3x weekly). Steady-state (n = 19) exercised (cycle ergometer) 20 minutes at 90% of ventilatory threshold (VT). Tabata (n = 21) completed eight intervals of 20s at 170% VO2max/10s rest. Meyer (n = 15) completed 13 sets of 30s (20 min) @ 100% PVO2 max/ 60s recovery, average PO = 90% VT. Each subject did 24 training sessions during 8 weeks. RESULTS: There were significant (p < 0.05) increases in VO2max (+19, +18 and +18%) and PPO (+17, +24 and +14%) for each training group, as well as significant increases in peak (+8, + 9 and +5%) & mean (+4, +7 and +6%) power during Wingate testing, but no significant differences between groups. Measures of the enjoyment of the training program indicated that the Tabata protocol was significantly less enjoyable (p < 0.05) than the steady state and Meyer protocols, and that the enjoyment of all protocols declined (p < 0.05) across the duration of the study. The results suggest that although HIIT protocols are time efficient, they are not superior to conventional exercise training in sedentary young adults. Key pointsSteady state training equivalent to HIIT in untrained studentsMild interval training presents very similar physiologic challenge compared to steady state trainingHIIT (particularly very high intensity variants were less enjoyable than steady state or mild interval trainingEnjoyment of training decreases across the course of an 8 week experimental training program.

Effects of radiant heat exposure on pacing pattern during a 15-km cycling time trial.

The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of different durations of skin temperature manipulation on pacing patterns and performance during a 15-km cycling time trial. Nineteen well-trained men completed three 15-km cycling time trials in 18 °C and 50% relative humidity with 4.5-km (short-heat), 9.0-km (long-heat) or without (control) radiant heat exposure applied by infrared heaters after 1.5 km in the time trial. During the time trials, power output, mean skin temperature, rectal temperature, heart rate and rating of perceived exertion were assessed. The radiant heat exposure resulted in higher mean skin temperature during the time trial for short-heat (35.0 ± 0.6 °C) and long-heat (35.3 ± 0.5 °C) than for control (32.5 ± 1.0 °C; P < 0.001), whereas rectal temperature was similar (P = 0.55). The mean power output was less for short-heat (273 ± 8 W; P = 0.001) and long-heat (271 ± 9 W; P = 0.02) than for control (287 ± 7 W), but pacing patterns did not differ (P = 0.55). Heart rate was greatest in control (177 ± 9 beats · min(-1); P < 0.001), whereas the rating of perceived exertion remained similar. We concluded that a radiant heat exposure and associated higher skin temperature reduced overall performance, but did not modify pacing pattern during a 15-km cycling time trial, regardless of the duration of the exposure.

Correspondence between training load executed by volleyball players and the one observed by coaches.

The main aim of this study was to compare the training load (TL) executed by volleyball players with that observed by coaches. Second, we analyzed the influence of the coaches' experience in the estimated TL. Twelve female volleyball players and 4 male coaches participated in this study. During a period of 15 weeks, physical (PT) and technical-tactical training sessions and matches were monitored. In each session, the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) was recorded to analyze the players' exercise intensity and TL(RP)E. Coaches were present in all sessions and rated their estimate of sRPE at the same time as the players to calculate the coaches' TL(RPE). Both players' and coaches' mean sRPE (4.0 ± 1.1, 3.7 ± 1.1, and 3.8 ± 1.0 in players and expert and beginning coaches, respectively) and TLRPE (380.1 ± 106.8, 358.3 ± 110.5, and 359.7 ± 108.0 in players and expert and beginning coaches, respectively) were similar. However, a higher (p < 0.01) sRPE and TL(RPE) were observed in the players during PT. In general, the weekly TL(RPE) variation over the course of this study was similar in players and coaches. The players' sRPE and TL(RPE) were correlated (p < 0.01) with expert and beginner coaches' RPE (r = 0.70 and 0.72, respectively) and TL(RPE) (r = 0.75 and 0.76, respectively). In conclusion, the present findings show the correspondence between players' and coaches' sRPE and TL(RPE) regardless of their experience. Hence, coaches' TL(RPE) could be a useful and practical method to monitor and control the TL and other derived parameters in an easy way during volleyball.

A simplified approach for estimating the ventilatory and respiratory compensation thresholds.

This study aimed to investigate whether ventilatory (VT) and respiratory compensation (RCT) thresholds could be derived from percentages of maximal running speed (Vmax). During the model building phase (1), VT & RCT of 31 competitive level athletes were identified with respiratory gas exchange. During the cross-validation phase (2), 20 subjects performed a treadmill test to identify Vmax and then they performed 30-min runs at velocities 2SE below or above the velocity at VT and RCT derived from (1), with measurement of blood lactate [BL], RPE, heart rate (HR), and speech comfort. Phase (1) revealed that VT and RCT were reached at 67 ± 9% and 84 ± 6% of Vmax. In (2) sustained running 2SE below VT (64% Vmax) was associated with the ability to finish 30-min, with low and constant [BL] (~2.5 mmol.l(-1)), moderate RPE (~3.0-3.5), a small HR drift, and ability to speak comfortably. Conversely, running at 2SE above RCT (86% Vmax) was associated with the inability to finish 30-min (18.5 ± 2.5 min to fatigue), increasing [BL] (end-exercise = 11.9 ± 0.9 mmol.l(-1)), high RPE (end-exercise = 8.9 ± 1.0), large HR drift (end-exercise = 98 ± 3% HRmax), and inability to speak comfortably. Simple percentages of Vmax (≤64% and ≥86%) obtained from a treadmill test without gas exchange, may be useful for prescribing exercise training intensities. Key pointsSimple performance parameters can be used to provide indications of physiologic thresholds.64% and 86% of the maximal running speed produce conditions consistent with ≤VT and ≥RCT.The combination of technology free feedback techniques such as the Talk Test and RPE and the simple %Vmax can be used as available and easy methods for the performance evaluation.Training prescription can be better addressed to the improvement of the aerobic or anaerobic capacity.

Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Essential Papers in Sports and Exercise Physiology.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this survey was to create a list of essential historical and contemporary readings for undergraduate and graduate students in the field of exercise physiology. METHODS: Fifty-two exercise physiologists/sport scientists served as referees, and each nominated ∼25 papers for inclusion in the list. In total, 396 papers were nominated by the referees. This list was then sent back to the referees, with the instructions to nominate the "100 essential papers in sports and exercise physiology." RESULTS: The referees cast 4722 votes. The 100 papers with the highest number of votes received 51% (2406) of the total number of votes. A total of 37 papers in the list of "100 essential papers" were published >50 years ago, and 63 papers were published since 1973. CONCLUSIONS: This list of essential studies will provide a perspective on contemporary studies, the "giant's shoulders" to enable young scholars to "see further" or to understand where they have "come from." This compilation is also meant to impress on students that, given the (lack of) technology available in the past, some of the early science required enormous intuitive leaps on the part of historical scientists.

"Falling Behind," "Letting Go," and Being "Outsprinted" as Distinct Features of Pacing in Distance Running.

INTRODUCTION: In distance running, pacing is characterized by changes in speed, leading to runners dropping off the leader's pace until a few remain to contest victory with a final sprint. Pacing behavior has been well studied over the last 30 years, but much remains unknown. It might be related to finishing position, finishing time, and dependent on critical speed (CS), a surrogate of physiologic capacity. We hypothesized a relationship between CS and the distance at which runners "fell behind" and "let go" from the leader or were "outsprinted" as contributors to performance. METHODS: 100-m split times were obtained for athletes in the men's 10,000-m at the 2008 Olympics (N = 35). Split times were individually compared with the winner at the point of "falling behind" (successive split times progressively slower than the winner), "letting go" (large increase in time for distance compared with winner), or "outsprinted" (falling behind despite active acceleration) despite being with the leader with 400 m remaining. RESULTS: Race times ranged between 26:55 and 29:23 (world record = 26:17). There were 3 groups who fell behind at ∼1000 (n = 11), ∼6000 (n = 16), and ∼9000 m (n = 2); let go at ∼4000 (n = 10), ∼7000 (n = 14), and ∼9500 m (n = 5); or were outkicked (n = 6). There was a moderate correlation between CS and finishing position (r = .82), individual mean pace (r = .79), "fell behind" distance (r = .77), and "let go" distance (r = .79). D' balance was correlated with performance in the last 400 m (r = .87). CONCLUSIONS: Athletes displayed distinct patterns of falling behind and letting go. CS serves as a moderate predictor of performance and final placing. Final placing during the sprint is related to preservation of D' balance.

Evolution of 1500-m Olympic Running Performance.

PURPOSE: This study determined the evolution of performance and pacing for each winner of the men's Olympic 1500-m running track final from 1924 to 2020. METHODS: Data were obtained from publicly available sources. When official splits were unavailable, times from sources such as YouTube were included and interpolated from video records. Final times, lap splits, and position in the peloton were included. The data are presented relative to 0 to 400 m, 400 to 800 m, 800 to 1200 m, and 1200 to 1500 m. Critical speed and D' were calculated using athletes' season's best times. RESULTS: Performance improved ∼25 seconds from 1924 to 2020, with most improvement (∼19 s) occurring in the first 10 finals. However, only 2 performances were world records, and only one runner won the event twice. Pacing evolved from a fast start-slow middle-fast finish pattern (reverse J-shaped) to a slower start with steady acceleration in the second half (J-shaped). The coefficient of variation for lap speeds ranged from 1.4% to 15.3%, consistent with a highly tactical pacing pattern. With few exceptions, the eventual winners were near the front throughout, although rarely in the leading position. There is evidence of a general increase in both critical speed and D' that parallels performance. CONCLUSIONS: An evolution in the pacing pattern occurred across several "eras" in the history of Olympic 1500-m racing, consistent with better trained athletes and improved technology. There has been a consistent tactical approach of following opponents until the latter stages, and athletes should develop tactical flexibility, related to their critical speed and D', in planning prerace strategy.

Relationship between the talk test and ventilatory thresholds in well-trained cyclists.

The aim of this study was to extend the range of populations where the Talk Test (TT) might be used as a marker of physiologic thresholds. Eighteen highly trained cyclists underwent 2 incremental tests. One test included measurement of respiratory gas exchange to determine the ventilatory (VT) and respiratory compensation thresholds (RCTs). On a separate day, a TT was performed using the same exercise protocol. During TT, subjects read a standard paragraph at the end of each stage. The first stage at which the cyclists could not talk comfortably and could definitely not talk were referred to as the equivocal (EQ) and the negative stages (NEG), respectively. There were no significant differences in workload, heart rate, lactate, and rating of perceived exertion between VT (3.7 ± 0.4 W kg, 150 ± 10 b min, 1.6 ± 0.3 mm L, and 4.1 ± 1.4, respectively) vs. EQ (3.6 ± 0.4 W kg, 148 ± 12 b min, 1.3 ± 0.5 mm L, and 3.8 ± 1.2, respectively) and RCT (5.3 ± 0.4 W kg, 177 ± 7 b min, 4.0 ± 0.9 mm L, and 7.2 ± 1.0, respectively) vs. NEG (5.3 ± 0.5 W kg, 176 ± 10 b min, 4.2 ± 1.3 mm L, and 6.8 ± 1.5, respectively). We found significant relationships (p < 0.01) between VT and EQ and RCT and NEG for workload (r = 0.86 and 0.94, respectively), heart rate (r = 0.79 and 0.92, respectively), and rating of perceived exertion (r = 0.79 and 0.88, respectively). In conclusion, the present study showed that the EQ and NEG stages of TT can be used as a simple and practical surrogate of the VT and RCT in highly trained cyclists.