Ecocultural or Biocultural? Towards Appropriate Terminologies in Biocultural Diversity.

Biocultural diversity has made notable contributions that have furthered our understanding of the human culture-nature interrelationship. However, the usage of the term 'biocultural' is not unique to biocultural diversity. It was first used in biocultural studies within anthropology decades ahead of biocultural diversity. The existing literature on biocultural diversity does not acknowledge the prior existence of biocultural studies, or provide a clear demarcation between usages of the two terms. In this article, I discuss the varying contexts in usage of the term 'biocultural' between biocultural diversity and biocultural anthropology. While biocultural diversity deals with the linkages between biological, cultural, and linguistic diversity, biocultural studies in anthropology deal with the deterministic influence of physical and social environment on human biology and wellbeing. In biocultural studies, 'biocultural' refers to the integration of methodically collated cultural data with biological and environmental data. 'Bio' in biocultural anthropology therefore denotes biology, unlike biocultural diversity where it refers to biodiversity. Both biocultural studies and biocultural diversity apply 'biocultural' as descriptor to generate overlapping terminologies such as 'biocultural approach'. Such a confusing scenario is not in the interest of biocultural diversity, as it would impede theoretical advancements. I propose that advocates of biocultural diversity explore its harmonies with ecoculturalism and the possibilities of suitably adapting the term 'ecoculture' in lieu of 'bioculture'. Using 'ecocultural' instead of 'biocultural' as a descriptor to coin terminologies could solve confusions arising from the expanding usage of the term 'bioculture'.

The fading popularity of a local ecological calendar from Brunei Darussalam, Borneo.

BACKGROUND: Local ecological calendars are ecocultural frameworks that link temporal and spatial scales, contributing to resilience and adaptive management of natural resources and landscapes. They also facilitate management, access and withdrawal of provisioning ecosystem services. In this article, we describe how the ecological calendar of the Kedayan people of Brunei Darussalam links skyscape and biodiversity with sociocultural aspirations to foster adaptive management of landscape, and provide an understanding of the transmission of calendric knowledge in the community. METHODS: In 2018, we collaborated with sixteen purposively sampled knowledge keepers from the Kedayan community of Brunei Darussalam to document the Kedayan local ecological calendar, and develop a calendrical pictogram. Using a structured questionnaire, we then interviewed 107 randomly selected community members, to understand the contemporary relevance and popularity of the Kedayan calendar, and the transmission of calendric knowledge in the community. RESULTS: Our findings reveal that very few respondents (n = 27, 25.3%) are aware of the existence of Kedayan ecological calendar; majority (n = 80, 74.7%) were not aware of its existence. There is no statistically significant correlation between consulting healers, knowledge on appropriate time requisite to consult healers, and awareness and self-professed knowledge of Kedayan calendar. Only 14 (13.1%) of the respondents reported to have received some form of calendric knowledge, while the majority (86.9%; n = 93) never received any calendric knowledge. Only a negligible 1.9% reported to have transmitted calendric knowledge to others indicating a breakdown in transmission of calendric knowledge. CONCLUSION: The calendric pictogram would help the community in revitalizing their calendar. However, the community will have to invest on enhancing transmission of calendric knowledge.

A comparative account of the traditional healing practices of healers and non-healers in the Kiudang area of Brunei Darussalam.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: In this study, we compare the traditional medicinal knowledge and associated spiritual practices of healers with that of non-healers, to understand the relevance of healers in contemporary times. Given that Brunei Darussalam is well-known for its forest cover, the study also aims to understand the number of species collected from the forests, compared to those from human influenced habitats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of six specialist healers from Belait, Tutong, Dusun and Iban communities, and seven non-healers who had personal experience in self-medication using medicinal plants participated in the study. We identified the specialist healers through purposive sampling, on the basis of their reputation in the locality, while the non-healers were those experienced in self-medication, recommended by the healers. Informants were interviewed at their residences, followed by collection trips to the plant habitats. We classified the total recorded ailments into 15 disease categories. We then compared the medicinal uses cited by healers to those mentioned by non-healers, as well as with prior published records from Brunei Darussalam. We also compare the habitats of species cited by both healers and non-healers to understand the dependency of the local pharmacopoeia on forests and human-influenced habitats. RESULTS: Our study records 175 medicinal plants belonging to 85 families, the majority of which (92) were exotic to Borneo. There were 110 species collected from disturbed, human influenced habitats such as roadsides, agricultural fields, secondary and degraded forests, and homestead lands, while 58 species were collected from the forests surrounding Kiudang. Majority of the plants used by both healers and non-healers were collected from human-influenced habitats, indicating that the local pharmacopoeia could be a disturbance one. Most of the medicinal plants recorded in this study were used to treat chronic, but non-life threatening conditions. Ailments affecting the digestive system were the most targeted group with 67 species used. All medicinal uses with more than one citation were recorded from healers. Medicinal uses cited by healers also had greater correspondence with prior published reports from Brunei Darussalam. Healers believe that combining medicinal plants can produce a synergistic effect. Our study found that traditional knowledge related to healing practices is mostly transmitted vertically from parents to children. We also show that a ritual gift (pikaras) and invocations characteristic of the beliefs of the healers play an important role in facilitating healing. CONCLUSION: Our study adds further evidence to prior studies that the medicinal plants and healing practices in the Kiudang region could be considered as disturbance pharmacopoeia. Healers with their knowledge on both therapeutic and spiritual aspects of healing continue to play an important role in local healthcare.

Geochemical behaviour and risk assessment of trace elements in a tropical river, Northwest Borneo.

By convention, dissolved trace elements in the river water are considered to be the fraction that passes through a 0.45 µm filter. However, several researchers have considered filtration cut-off other than 0.45 µm for the separation of dissolved trace elements from particulate fraction. Recent research indicated that trace elements could exist in particulate form as colloids and natural nanoparticles. Moreover, the trace elements in the continental dust (aerosols) constitute a significant component in their geochemical cycling. Due to their high mobility, the trace elements in the micron and sub-micron scale have biogeochemical significance in the coastal zone. In this context, this study focuses on the highly mobile fraction of trace elements in particulates (<11 µm) and dissolved form in the Lower Baram River. A factor model utilizing trace elements in the dissolved and mobile phase in the particulates (<11 µm) along with water column characteristics and the partition coefficient (Kd) of the trace elements indicated a more significant role for manganese oxyhydroxides in trace element transport. Perhaps, iron oxyhydroxides play a secondary role. The factor model further illustrated the dissolution of aluminium and authigenic clay formation. Except for Fe and Al, the contamination risk of mobile trace elements in particulates (<11 µm) together with dissolved form are within the permissible limits of the Malaysian water quality standards during monsoon (MON) and postmonsoon (POM) seasons.

Socialising over fruits and vegetables: the biocultural importance of an open-air market in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam.

BACKGROUND: Earth's biocultural diversity comprising biological, cultural and linguistic diversities is being eroded quickly. Our ability to recognise and appreciate what is remaining is crucial for its survival. However, not all forms of diversity are appreciated equally and a growing trend in plant blindness indicates that humans ignore plants in the environment. In this context, open-air markets emerge as cultural spaces that bring people closer to each other, as well as with local biodiversity represented by fruits, vegetables and medicinal plants. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey with 160 people visiting Tamu Kianggeh of Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. We randomly interviewed every fifth adult visitor (> 18 years) leaving the market on Fridays and Sundays continuously for a month, using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire had 18 questions related to demographic particulars, reasons for visiting the market, vendor preference, social networking and visits to open-air markets and supermarkets. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: People visit the market for the diversity of vegetables/fruits; local fruits and vegetables; socialising; cheap prices; ability to bargain; freshness of the products; convenience; medicinal plants; snacks; leisure etc. The ethnic diversity represented at the market comprised chiefly of Malay, Kedayan, Iban, Dusun, Tutong, Chinese communities and foreigners. Majority of the respondents chose 'availability of a wide range of fruits and vegetables' as the primary reason for the visit, followed by 'availability of local fruits and vegetables'. Tamu Kianggeh sold larger number of fruits and vegetables (104 taxa, 26 natives, 2 endemics) compared to the nearest supermarket (85 taxa, 14 natives and 1 endemic). A significant number of respondents also reported that they had made friends at the market. CONCLUSION: Tamu Kianggeh is a meeting ground for ethnic and biological diversities, a property that makes them important centres of biocultural diversity at the local level. Open-air markets such as Tamu Kianggeh bring people closer to a diverse range of vegetables and fruits. They also bring people closer to each other by serving as platforms for socialising. We propose that strategies developed to counter plant blindness should also consider the potential of open-air markets.

When the seeds sprout, the hornbills hatch: understanding the traditional ecological knowledge of the Ibans of Brunei Darussalam on hornbills.

BACKGROUND: Hornbills are known to play an important role in rainforests as agents of seed dispersal. Decades of scientific research has led to a vital body of knowledge on hornbill taxonomy, ecology, distribution, and conservation status. However, the traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) that local people possess on hornbills has largely been underexplored. In 2018, we collaborated with the Iban people of Temburong, Brunei Darussalam, to study their TEK on hornbills. METHOD: We collaborated with the members of the Iban community from four longhouses and four villages in Temburong, Brunei Darussalam. Our study adopts a qualitative approach; we used detailed semi-directive interviews and brief semi-structured interviews to gather data. The semi-directive interviews documented the TEK related to Hornbills in detail while the brief semi-structured interviews assessed the current status of TEK in the age group of 18-40 years. RESULTS: The results show that the Iban ethnotaxonomy recognises seven folk species of hornbills, with Asian Black Hornbill (Anthracoceros malayanus) and Oriental Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) considered as a single folk species. The Iban TEK on diet and reproductive behaviour of hornbills complement existing scientific records, with the Iban TEK providing additional locale-specific information on the dietary preferences, abundance and conservation threats. However, the average Iban member has lost much of this TEK, and it is the subsistence hunters and agriculturists who have conserved it. CONCLUSION: There is an urgent need for encouraging transmission of knowledge from the hunters and agriculturists to others through ecotourism and conservation ventures. Our study adds further support to the understanding that the TEK of local communities is an important source of locale-specific knowledge on species of high conservation value such as hornbills.

Environmental significance and geochemical speciation of trace elements in Lower Baram River sediments.

The geochemistry and distribution of major, trace and rare earth elements (REE's) was studied in the surface sediments of the Lower Baram River during two seasons: the Monsoon (MON) and Post - monsoon (POM). The major geochemical processes controlling the distribution and mobility of major, trace and REE's in the Lower Baram River surface sediments was revealed through factor analysis. The risk assessment of major and trace element levels was studied at three specific levels; i.e. the enrichment level [Contamination Factor (Cf), with the geo-accumulation index (Igeo)], the availability level [metals bound to different fractions, risk assessment code (RAC)], and the biological toxicity level [effect range low (ERL) and effect range medium (ERM)]. The results of all the indices indicate that Cu is the element of concern in the Lower Baram River sediments. The geochemical fractionation of major and trace elements were studied through sequential extraction and the results indicated a higher concentration of Mn in the exchangeable fraction. The element of concern, Cu, was found to be highly associated in the organic bound (F4) fraction during both seasons and a change in the redox, possibly due to storms or dredging activities may stimulate the release of Cu into the overlying waters of the Lower Baram River.

Ready for phase 5 - current status of ethnobiology in Southeast Asia.

BACKGROUND: Southeast Asia is known for its rich linguistic, cultural and biological diversity. While ethnobiology in the west has benefitted greatly from intellectual and methodological advances over the last decades, the status of Southeast Asian ethnobiology is largely unknown. This study aims to provide an analysis of the current status of ethnobiology in Southeast Asia and outlines possibilities for future advancements. METHODS: We accessed papers cited in the Scopus and Web of Science databases for the period of 1960 to 2014 using the current as well as previous names of the 11 Southeast Asian countries and various disciplines of ethnobiology as key words. We juxtaposed the number of publications from each country against its number of indigenous groups and languages, to see if ethnobiology research has addressed this full spectrum of ethnical diversity. The available data for the last ten years was analysed according to the five phases concept to understand the nature of studies dominating Southeast Asian ethnobiology. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: A total number of 312 publications were recorded in the databases for the period 1960-2014. Indonesia ranks highest (93 studies), followed by Thailand (68), Malaysia (58) Philippines (42), Vietnam (31), Laos (29), and other Southeast Asian countries (44). A strong correlation was found between the number of publications for each country, the number of indigenous groups, and the number of endangered languages. Comparing the data available for the period 2005-2009 with 2010-2014, we found a strong increase in the number of phase 5 publications. However, papers with bioprospecting focus were also on the rise, especially in Malaysia. Our study indicates that ethnobiologists still need to realise the full potential of the Biocultural Diversity of Southeast Asia, and that there is a strong need to focus more on socially relevant research.