The Proteome of the Dentate Terminal Zone of the Perforant Path Indicates Presynaptic Impairment in Alzheimer Disease.

Synaptic dysfunction is an early pathogenic event in Alzheimer disease (AD) that contributes to network disturbances and cognitive decline. Some synapses are more vulnerable than others, including the synapses of the perforant path, which provides the main excitatory input to the hippocampus. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the dysfunction of these synapses, we performed an explorative proteomic study of the dentate terminal zone of the perforant path. The outer two-thirds of the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus, where the perforant path synapses are located, was microdissected from five subjects with AD and five controls. The microdissected tissues were dissolved and digested by trypsin. Peptides from each sample were labeled with different isobaric tags, pooled together and pre-fractionated into 72 fractions by high-resolution isoelectric focusing. Each fraction was then analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. We quantified the relative expression levels of 7322 proteins, whereof 724 showed significantly altered levels in AD. Our comprehensive data analysis using enrichment and pathway analyses strongly indicated that presynaptic signaling, such as exocytosis and synaptic vesicle cycle processes, is severely disturbed in this area in AD, whereas postsynaptic proteins remained unchanged. Among the significantly altered proteins, we selected three of the most downregulated synaptic proteins; complexin-1, complexin-2 and synaptogyrin-1, for further validation, using a new cohort consisting of six AD and eight control cases. Semi-quantitative analysis of immunohistochemical staining confirmed decreased levels of complexin-1, complexin-2 and synaptogyrin-1 in the outer two-thirds of the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus in AD. Our in-depth proteomic analysis provides extensive knowledge on the potential molecular mechanism underlying synaptic dysfunction related to AD and supports that presynaptic alterations are more important than postsynaptic changes in early stages of the disease. The specific synaptic proteins identified could potentially be targeted to halt synaptic dysfunction in AD.

APP accumulates with presynaptic proteins around amyloid plaques: A role for presynaptic mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease?

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the distribution of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its fragments other than amyloid beta, has not been fully characterized. Here, we investigate the distribution of APP and its fragments in human AD brain samples and in mouse models of AD in reference to its proteases, synaptic proteins, and histopathological features characteristic of the AD brain, by combining an extensive set of histological and analytical tools. We report that the prominent somatic distribution of APP observed in control patients remarkably vanishes in human AD patients to the benefit of dense accumulations of extra-somatic APP, which surround dense-core amyloid plaques enriched in APP-Nter. These features are accentuated in patients with familial forms of the disease. Importantly, APP accumulations are enriched in phosphorylated tau and presynaptic proteins whereas they are depleted of post-synaptic proteins suggesting that the extra-somatic accumulations of APP are of presynaptic origin. Ultrastructural analyses unveil that APP concentrates in autophagosomes and in multivesicular bodies together with presynaptic vesicle proteins. Altogether, alteration of APP distribution and its accumulation together with presynaptic proteins around dense-core amyloid plaques is a key histopathological feature in AD, lending support to the notion that presynaptic failure is a strong physiopathological component of AD.

Proximity ligation assay reveals both pre- and postsynaptic localization of the APP-processing enzymes ADAM10 and BACE1 in rat and human adult brain.

BACKGROUND: Synaptic degeneration and accumulation of amyloid ß-peptides (Aß) are hallmarks of the Alzheimer diseased brain. Aß is synaptotoxic and produced by sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the ß-secretase BACE1 and by γ-secretase. If APP is instead cleaved by the α-secretase ADAM10, Aß will not be generated. Although BACE1 is considered to be a presynaptic protein and ADAM10 has been reported to mainly localize to the postsynaptic density, we have previously shown that both ADAM10 and BACE1 are highly enriched in synaptic vesicles of rat brain and mouse primary hippocampal neurons. RESULTS: Here, using brightfield proximity ligation assay, we expanded our previous result in primary neurons and investigated the in situ synaptic localization of ADAM10 and BACE1 in rat and human adult brain using both pre- and postsynaptic markers. We found that ADAM10 and BACE1 were in close proximity with both the presynaptic marker synaptophysin and the postsynaptic marker PSD-95. The substrate APP was also detected both pre- and postsynaptically. Subcellular fractionation confirmed that ADAM10 and BACE1 are enriched to a similar degree in synaptic vesicles and as well as in the postsynaptic density. CONCLUSIONS: We show that the α-secretase ADAM10 and the ß-secretase BACE1 are located in both the pre- and postsynaptic compartments in intact brain sections. These findings increase our understanding of the regulation of APP processing, thereby facilitating development of more specific treatment strategies.

APP depletion alters selective pre- and post-synaptic proteins.

The normal role of Alzheimer's disease (AD)-linked amyloid precursor protein (APP) in the brain remains incompletely understood. Previous studies have reported that lack of APP has detrimental effects on spines and electrophysiological parameters. APP has been described to be important in synaptic pruning during development. The effect of APP knockout on mature synapses is complicated by this role in development. We previously reported on differential changes in synaptic proteins and receptors in APP mutant AD transgenic compared to wild-type neurons, which revealed selective decreases in levels of pre- and post-synaptic proteins, including of surface glutamate receptors. In the present study, we undertook a similar analysis of synaptic composition but now in APP knockout compared to wild-type mouse neurons. Here we demonstrate alterations in levels of selective pre- and post-synaptic proteins and receptors in APP knockout compared to wild-type mouse primary neurons in culture and brains of mice in youth and adulthood. Remarkably, we demonstrate selective increases in levels of synaptic proteins, such as GluA1, in neurons with APP knockout and with RNAi knockdown, which tended to be opposite to the reductions seen in AD transgenic APP mutant compared to wild-type neurons. These data reinforce that APP is important for the normal composition of synapses.

Maturation and processing of the amyloid precursor protein is regulated by the potassium/sodium hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel 2 (HCN2).

The toxic amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) is a key player in Alzheimer Disease (AD) pathogenesis and selective inhibition of the production of this peptide is sought for. Aß is produced by the sequential cleavage of the Aß precursor protein (APP) by ß-secretase (to yield APP-C-terminal fragment ß (APP-CTFß) and soluble APPß (sAPPß)) and γ-secretase (to yield Aß). We reasoned that proteins that associate with γ-secretase are likely to regulate Aß production and to be targets of pharmaceutical interventions and therefore performed a pull-down assay to screen for such proteins in rat brain. Interestingly, one of the purified proteins was potassium/sodium hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel 2 (HCN2), which has been shown to be involved in epilepsy. We found that silencing of HCN2 resulted in decreased secreted Aß levels. To further investigate the mechanism behind this reduction, we also determined the levels of full-length APP, sAPP and APP-CTF species after silencing of HCN2. A marked reduction in sAPP and APP-CTF, as well as glycosylated APP levels was detected. Decreased Aß, sAPP and APP-CTF levels were also detected after treatment with the HCN2 inhibitor ZD7288. These results indicate that the effect on Aß levels after HCN2 silencing or inhibition is due to altered APP maturation or processing by ß-secretase rather than a direct effect on γ-secretase. However, HCN2 and γ-secretase were found to be in close proximity, as evident by proximity ligation assay and immunoprecipitation. In summary, our results indicate that silencing or inhibition of HCN2 affects APP processing and thereby could serve as a potential treatment strategy.

ADAM10 and BACE1 are localized to synaptic vesicles.

Synaptic degeneration and accumulation of the neurotoxic amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) in the brain are hallmarks of Alzheimer disease. Aß is produced by sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), by the ß-secretase ß-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) and γ-secretase. However, Aß generation is precluded if APP is cleaved by the α-secretase ADAM10 instead of BACE1. We have previously shown that Aß can be produced locally at the synapse. To study the synaptic localization of the APP processing enzymes we used western blotting to demonstrate that, compared to total brain homogenate, ADAM10 and BACE1 were greatly enriched in synaptic vesicles isolated from rat brain using controlled-pore glass chromatography, whereas Presenilin1 was the only enriched component of the γ-secretase complex. Moreover, we detected ADAM10 activity in synaptic vesicles and enrichment of the intermediate APP-C-terminal fragments (APP-CTFs). We confirmed the western blotting findings using in situ proximity ligation assay to demonstrate close proximity of ADAM10 and BACE1 with the synaptic vesicle marker synaptophysin in intact mouse primary hippocampal neurons. In contrast, only sparse co-localization of active γ-secretase and synaptophysin was detected. These results indicate that the first step of APP processing occurs in synaptic vesicles whereas the final step is more likely to take place elsewhere.

Identification of novel γ-secretase-associated proteins in detergent-resistant membranes from brain.

In Alzheimer disease, oligomeric amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) species lead to synapse loss and neuronal death. γ-Secretase, the transmembrane protease complex that mediates the final catalytic step that liberates Aß from its precursor protein (APP), has a multitude of substrates, and therapeutics aimed at reducing Aß production should ideally be specific for APP cleavage. It has been shown that APP can be processed in lipid rafts, and γ-secretase-associated proteins can affect Aß production. Here, we use a biotinylated inhibitor for affinity purification of γ-secretase and associated proteins and mass spectrometry for identification of the purified proteins, and we identify novel γ-secretase-associated proteins in detergent-resistant membranes from brain. Furthermore, we show by small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of gene expression that a subset of the γ-secretase-associated proteins, in particular voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) and contactin-associated protein 1 (CNTNAP1), reduced Aß production (Aß40 and Aß42) by around 70%, whereas knockdown of presenilin 1, one of the essential γ-secretase complex components, reduced Aß production by 50%. Importantly, these proteins had a less pronounced effect on Notch processing. We conclude that VDAC1 and CNTNAP1 associate with γ-secretase in detergent-resistant membranes and affect APP processing and suggest that molecules that interfere with this interaction could be of therapeutic use for Alzheimer disease.

Erlin-2 is associated with active γ-secretase in brain and affects amyloid ß-peptide production.

The transmembrane protease complex γ-secretase is responsible for the generation of the neurotoxic amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) from its precursor (APP). Aß has a causative role in Alzheimer disease, and thus, γ-secretase is a therapeutic target. However, since there are more than 70 γ-secretase substrates besides APP, selective inhibition of APP processing is required. Recent data indicates the existence of several γ-secretase associated proteins (GSAPs) that affect the selection and processing of substrates. Here, we use a γ-secretase inhibitor for affinity purification of γ-secretase and associated proteins from microsomes and detergent resistant membranes (DRMs) prepared from rat or human brain. By tandem mass spectrometry we identified a novel brain GSAP; erlin-2. This protein was recently reported to reside in DRMs in the ER. A proximity ligation assay, as well as co-immunoprecipitation, confirmed the association of erlin-2 with γ-secretase. We found that a higher proportion of erlin-2 was associated with γ-secretase in DRMs than in soluble membranes. siRNA experiments indicated that reduced levels of erlin-2 resulted in a decreased Aß production, whereas the effect on Notch processing was limited. In summary, we have found a novel brain GSAP, erlin-2, that resides in DRMs and affects Aß production.

Mitochondrial γ-secretase participates in the metabolism of mitochondria-associated amyloid precursor protein.

Intracellular amyloid-ß peptide (Aß) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Mitochondria were found to be the target both for amyloid precursor protein (APP) that accumulates in the mitochondrial import channels and for Aß that interacts with several proteins inside mitochondria and leads to mitochondrial dysfunction. Here, we have studied the role of mitochondrial γ-secretase in processing different substrates. We found that a significant proportion of APP is associated with mitochondria in cultured cells and that γ-secretase cleaves the shedded C-terminal part of APP identified as C83 associated with the outer membrane of mitochondria (OMM). Moreover, we have established the topology of the C83 in the OMM and found the APP intracellular domain (AICD) to be located inside mitochondria. Our data show for the first time that APP is a substrate for the mitochondrial γ-secretase and that AICD is produced inside mitochondria. Thus, we provide a mechanistic view of the mitochondria-associated APP metabolism where AICD, P3 peptide and potentially Aß are produced locally and may contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction in AD.

Increased CSF-decorin predicts brain pathological changes driven by Alzheimer's Aß amyloidosis.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers play an important role in diagnosing Alzheimer's disease (AD) which is characterized by amyloid-ß (Aß) amyloidosis. Here, we used two App knock-in mouse models, AppNL-F/NL-F and AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F, exhibiting AD-like Aß pathology to analyze how the brain pathologies translate to CSF proteomes by label-free mass spectrometry (MS). This identified several extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins as significantly altered in App knock-in mice. Next, we compared mouse CSF proteomes with previously reported human CSF MS results acquired from patients across the AD spectrum. Intriguingly, the ECM protein decorin was similarly and significantly increased in both AppNL-F/NL-F and AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F mice, strikingly already at three months of age in the AppNL-F/NL-F mice and preclinical AD subjects having abnormal CSF-Aß42 but normal cognition. Notably, in this group of subjects, CSF-decorin levels positively correlated with CSF-Aß42 levels indicating that the change in CSF-decorin is associated with early Aß amyloidosis. Importantly, receiver operating characteristic analysis revealed that CSF-decorin can predict a specific AD subtype having innate immune activation and potential choroid plexus dysfunction in the brain. Consistently, in AppNL-F/NL-F mice, increased CSF-decorin correlated with both Aß plaque load and with decorin levels in choroid plexus. In addition, a low concentration of human Aß42 induces decorin secretion from mouse primary neurons. Interestingly, we finally identify decorin to activate neuronal autophagy through enhancing lysosomal function. Altogether, the increased CSF-decorin levels occurring at an early stage of Aß amyloidosis in the brain may reflect pathological changes in choroid plexus, present in a subtype of AD subjects.

Minor contribution of presenilin 2 for γ-secretase activity in mouse embryonic fibroblasts and adult mouse brain.

γ-Secretase plays an important function in the development of Alzheimer disease, since it participates in the production of the toxic amyloid ß-peptide (Aß) from the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Besides APP, γ-secretase cleaves many other substrates resulting in adverse side effects when γ-secretase inhibitors are used in clinical trials. γ-Secretase is a membrane bound protein complex consisting of at least four subunits, presenilin (PS), nicastrin, Aph-1 and Pen-2. PS and Aph-1 exist as different homologs (PS1/PS2 and Aph-1a/Aph-1b, respectively), which generates a variation in complex composition. PS1 and PS2 appears to have distinct roles since PS1 is essential during embryonic development whereas PS2 deficient mice are viable with a mild phenotype. The molecular mechanism behind this diversity is, however, largely unknown. In order to investigate whether PS1 and PS2 show different substrate specificity, we used PS1 or PS2 deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts to study the processing on the γ-secretase substrates APP, Notch, N-cadherin, and ephrinB. We found that whereas depletion of PS1 severely affected the cleavage of all substrates, the effect of PS2 depletion was minor. In addition, less PS2 was found in active γ-secretase complexes. We also studied the effect of PS2 depletion in adult mouse brain and, in concordance with the results from the mouse embryonic fibroblasts, PS2 deficiency did not alter the cleavage of the two most important substrates, APP and Notch. In summary, this study shows that the contribution of PS2 on γ-secretase activity is of less importance, explaining the mild phenotype of PS2-deficient mice.

Distinctive alteration of presynaptic proteins in the outer molecular layer of the dentate gyrus in Alzheimer's disease.

Synaptic degeneration has been reported as one of the best pathological correlates of cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease. However, the location of these synaptic alterations within hippocampal sub-regions, the vulnerability of the presynaptic versus postsynaptic compartments, and the biological mechanisms for these impairments remain unknown. Here, we performed immunofluorescence labelling of different synaptic proteins in fixed and paraffin-embedded human hippocampal sections and report reduced levels of several presynaptic proteins of the neurotransmitter release machinery (complexin-1, syntaxin-1A, synaptotagmin-1 and synaptogyrin-1) in Alzheimer's disease cases. The deficit was restricted to the outer molecular layer of the dentate gyrus, whereas other hippocampal sub-fields were preserved. Interestingly, standard markers of postsynaptic densities (SH3 and multiple ankyrin repeat domains protein 2) and dendrites (microtubule-associated protein 2) were unaltered, as well as the relative number of granule cells in the dentate gyrus, indicating that the deficit is preferentially presynaptic. Notably, staining for the axonal components, myelin basic protein, SMI-312 and Tau, was unaffected, suggesting that the local presynaptic impairment does not result from axonal loss or alterations of structural proteins of axons. There was no correlation between the reduction in presynaptic proteins in the outer molecular layer and the extent of the amyloid load or of the dystrophic neurites expressing phosphorylated forms of Tau. Altogether, this study highlights the distinctive vulnerability of the outer molecular layer of the dentate gyrus and supports the notion of presynaptic failure in Alzheimer's disease.

Insights into the changes in the proteome of Alzheimer disease elucidated by a meta-analysis.

Mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics is a powerful tool to explore pathogenic changes of a disease in an unbiased manner and has been used extensively in Alzheimer disease (AD) research. Here, by performing a meta-analysis of high-quality proteomic studies, we address which pathological changes are observed consistently and therefore most likely are of great importance for AD pathogenesis. We retrieved datasets, comprising a total of 21,588 distinct proteins identified across 857 postmortem human samples, from ten studies using labeled or label-free MS approaches. Our meta-analysis findings showed significant alterations of 757 and 1,195 proteins in AD in the labeled and label-free datasets, respectively. Only 33 proteins, some of which were associated with synaptic signaling, had the same directional change across the individual studies. However, despite alterations in individual proteins being different between the labeled and the label-free datasets, several pathways related to synaptic signaling, oxidative phosphorylation, immune response and extracellular matrix were commonly dysregulated in AD. These pathways represent robust changes in the human AD brain and warrant further investigation.

Affinity pulldown of γ-secretase and associated proteins from human and rat brain.

γ-Secretase is a transmembrane protease complex responsible for the processing of a multitude of type 1 transmembrane proteins, including amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Notch. A functional complex is dependent on the assembly of four proteins: presenilin (PS), nicastrin, Aph-1 and Pen-2. Little is known about how the substrates are selected by γ-secretase, but it has been suggested that γ-secretase associated proteins (GSAPs) could be of importance. For instance, it was recently reported from studies in cell lines that TMP21, a transmembrane protein involved in trafficking, binds to γ-secretase and regulates the processing of APP-derived substrates without affecting Notch cleavage. Here, we present an efficient and selective method for purification and analysis of γ-secretase and GSAPs. Microsomal membranes were prepared from rat or human brain and incubated with a γ-secretase inhibitor coupled to biotin via a long linker and a S-S bridge. After pulldown using streptavidin beads, bound proteins were eluted under reducing conditions and digested by trypsin. The tryptic peptides were subjected to LC-MS/MS analysis, and proteins were identified by sequence data from MS/MS spectra. All of the known γ-secretase components were identified. Interestingly, TMP21 and the PS associated protein syntaxin1 were associated to γ-secretase in rat brain. We suggest that the present method can be used for further studies on the composition of the γ-secretase complex.

Non-specific Detection of a Major Western Blotting Band in Human Brain Homogenates by a Multitude of Amyloid Precursor Protein Antibodies.

The use of human post-mortem brain material is of great value when investigating which pathological mechanisms occur in human brain, and to avoid translational problems which have for example been evident when translating animal research into Alzheimer disease (AD) clinical trials. The amyloid ß (Aß)-peptide, its amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the intermediate APP-c-terminal fragments (APP-CTFs) are all important players in AD pathogenesis. In order to elucidate which APP CTF that are the most common in brain tissue of different species and developmental stages, and whether there are any differences in these fragments between AD and control brain, we investigated the occurrence of these fragments using different APP c-terminal antibodies. We noticed that whereas the conventional APP-CTFα and CTFß fragments were most prominent in rat and mouse brain tissue, the major western blotting band detected in human, macaque and guinea pig was of approximately 20 kDa in size, possibly corresponding to the newly discovered APP-CTFη. However, this band was also intensely stained with a total protein stain, as well as by several other antibodies. The staining intensity of the 20 kDa band by the APP antibodies varied considerably between samples and correlated with the staining intensity of this band by the total protein stain. This could potentially be due to non-specific binding of the antibodies to another protein of this size. In-gel digestion and mass spectrometry confirmed that small amounts of APP were present in this band, but many other proteins were identified as well. The major hit of the mass spectrometry analysis was myelin basic protein (MBP) and a myelin removal protocol removed proportionally more of the 20 kDa APP band than the full-length APP and APP-CTFα/ß bands. However, the signal could not be immunodepleted with an MBP antibody. In summary, we report on a potentially non-specific western blotting band of approximately 20 kDa and call for precaution when analyzing proteins of this size in human brain tissue.

Active gamma-secretase is localized to detergent-resistant membranes in human brain.

Several lines of evidence suggest that polymerization of the amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) into amyloid plaques is a pathogenic event in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Abeta is produced from the amyloid precursor protein as the result of sequential proteolytic cleavages by beta-secretase and gamma-secretase, and it has been suggested that these enzymes could be targets for treatment of AD. gamma-Secretase is an aspartyl protease complex, containing at least four transmembrane proteins. Studies in cell lines have shown that gamma-secretase is partially localized to lipid rafts, which are detergent-resistant membrane microdomains enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids. Here, we studied gamma-secretase in detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs) prepared from human brain. DRMs prepared in the mild detergent CHAPSO and isolated by sucrose gradient centrifugation were enriched in gamma-secretase components and activity. The DRM fraction was subjected to size-exclusion chromatography in CHAPSO, and all of the gamma-secretase components and a lipid raft marker were found in the void volume (> 2000 kDa). Co-immunoprecipitation studies further supported the notion that the gamma-secretase components are associated even at high concentrations of CHAPSO. Preparations from rat brain gave similar results and showed a postmortem time-dependent decline in gamma-secretase activity, suggesting that DRMs from fresh rat brain may be useful for gamma-secretase activity studies. Finally, confocal microscopy showed co-localization of gamma-secretase components and a lipid raft marker in thin sections of human brain. We conclude that the active gamma-secretase complex is localized to lipid rafts in human brain.

Monoamine oxidase B is elevated in Alzheimer disease neurons, is associated with γ-secretase and regulates neuronal amyloid ß-peptide levels.

BACKGROUND: Increased levels of the pathogenic amyloid ß-peptide (Aß), released from its precursor by the transmembrane protease γ-secretase, are found in Alzheimer disease (AD) brains. Interestingly, monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) activity is also increased in AD brain, but its role in AD pathogenesis is not known. Recent neuroimaging studies have shown that the increased MAO-B expression in AD brain starts several years before the onset of the disease. Here, we show a potential connection between MAO-B, γ-secretase and Aß in neurons. METHODS: MAO-B immunohistochemistry was performed on postmortem human brain. Affinity purification of γ-secretase followed by mass spectrometry was used for unbiased identification of γ-secretase-associated proteins. The association of MAO-B with γ-secretase was studied by coimmunoprecipitation from brain homogenate, and by in-situ proximity ligation assay (PLA) in neurons as well as mouse and human brain sections. The effect of MAO-B on Aß production and Notch processing in cell cultures was analyzed by siRNA silencing or overexpression experiments followed by ELISA, western blot or FRET analysis. Methodology for measuring relative intraneuronal MAO-B and Aß42 levels in single cells was developed by combining immunocytochemistry and confocal microscopy with quantitative image analysis. RESULTS: Immunohistochemistry revealed MAO-B staining in neurons in the frontal cortex, hippocampus CA1 and entorhinal cortex in postmortem human brain. Interestingly, the neuronal staining intensity was higher in AD brain than in control brain in these regions. Mass spectrometric data from affinity purified γ-secretase suggested that MAO-B is a γ-secretase-associated protein, which was confirmed by immunoprecipitation and PLA, and a neuronal location of the interaction was shown. Strikingly, intraneuronal Aß42 levels correlated with MAO-B levels, and siRNA silencing of MAO-B resulted in significantly reduced levels of intraneuronal Aß42. Furthermore, overexpression of MAO-B enhanced Aß production. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that MAO-B levels are increased not only in astrocytes but also in pyramidal neurons in AD brain. The study also suggests that MAO-B regulates Aß production in neurons via γ-secretase and thereby provides a key to understanding the relationship between MAO-B and AD pathogenesis. Potentially, the γ-secretase/MAO-B association may be a target for reducing Aß levels using protein-protein interaction breakers.

Proton myo-inositol cotransporter is a novel γ-secretase associated protein that regulates Aß production without affecting Notch cleavage.

γ-Secretase is a transmembrane protease complex that is responsible for the processing of a multitude of type 1 transmembrane proteins, including the amyloid precursor protein and Notch. γ-Secretase processing of amyloid precursor protein results in the release of the amyloid ß-peptide (Aß), which is involved in the pathogenesis in Alzheimer's disease. Processing of Notch leads to the release of its intracellular domain, which is important for cell development. γ-Secretase associated proteins (GSAPs) could be of importance for substrate selection, and we have previously shown that affinity purification of γ-secretase in combination with mass spectrometry can be used for finding such proteins. In the present study, we used this methodology to screen for novel GSAPs from human brain, and studied their effect on Aß production in a comprehensive gene knockdown approach. Silencing of probable phospholipid-transporting ATPase IIA, brain-derived neurotrophic factor/neurotrophin-3 growth factor receptor precursor and proton myo-inositol cotransporter (SLC2A13) showed a clear reduction of Aß and these proteins were selected for further studies on Aß production and Notch cleavage using small interfering RNA-mediated gene silencing, as well as an overexpression approach. Silencing of these reduced Aß secretion in a small interfering RNA dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, SLC2A13 had a lower effect on Notch processing. Furthermore, overexpression of SLC2A13 increased Aß40 generation. Finally, the interaction between γ-secretase and SLC2A13 was confirmed using immunoprecipitation and a proximity ligation assay. In summary, SLC2A13 was identified as a novel GSAP that regulates Aß production without affecting Notch cleavage. We suggest that SLC2A13 could be a target for Aß lowering therapy aimed at treating Alzheimer's disease.

Activity-independent release of the amyloid ß-peptide from rat brain nerve terminals.

Synaptic degeneration is one of the earliest hallmarks of Alzheimer disease. The molecular mechanism underlying this degeneration is not fully elucidated but one key player appears to be the synaptotoxic amyloid ß-peptide (Aß). The exact localization of the production of Aß and the mechanisms whereby Aß is released remain elusive. We have earlier shown that Aß can be produced in crude synaptic vesicle fractions and it has been reported that increased synaptic activity results in increased secreted but decreased intracellular Aß levels. Therefore, we considered whether Aß could be produced in synaptic vesicles and/or released through the same mechanisms as neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Small amounts of Aß were found to be produced in pure synaptic vesicle preparations. We also studied the release of glutamate and Aß from rat cortical nerve terminals (synaptosomes). We found that large amounts of Aß were secreted from non-stimulated synaptosomes, from which glutamate was not released. On the contrary, we could not detect any differences in Aß release between non-stimulated synaptosomes and synaptosomes stimulated with KCl or 4-aminopyridine, whereas glutamate release was readily inducible in this system. To conclude, our results indicate that the major release mechanism of Aß from isolated nerve terminals differs from the synaptic release of glutamate and that the activity-dependent increase of secreted Aß, reported by several groups using intact cells, is likely dependent on post-synaptic events, trafficking and/or protein synthesis mechanisms.

Identification of two novel synaptic γ-secretase associated proteins that affect amyloid ß-peptide levels without altering Notch processing.

Synaptic degeneration is one of the earliest hallmarks of Alzheimer disease (AD) and results in loss of cognitive function. One of the causative agents for the synaptic degeneration is the amyloid ß-peptide (Aß), which is formed from its precursor protein by two sequential cleavages mediated by ß- and γ-secretase. We have earlier shown that γ-secretase activity is enriched in synaptic compartments, suggesting that the synaptotoxic Aß is produced locally. Proteins that interact with γ-secretase at the synapse and regulate the production of Aß can therefore be potential therapeutic targets. We used a recently developed affinity purification approach to identify γ-secretase associated proteins (GSAPs) in synaptic membranes and synaptic vesicles prepared from rat brain. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of the affinity purified samples revealed the known γ-secretase components presenilin-1, nicastrin and Aph-1b along with a number of novel potential GSAPs. To investigate the effect of these GSAPs on APP processing, we performed siRNA experiments to knock down the expression of the GSAPs and measured the Aß levels. Silencing of NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur protein 7 (NDUFS7) resulted in a decrease in Aß levels whereas silencing of tubulin polymerization promoting protein (TPPP) resulted in an increase in Aß levels. Treatment with γ-secretase inhibitors often results in Notch-related side effects and therefore we also studied the effect of the siRNAs on Notch processing. Interestingly, silencing of TPPP or NDUFS7 did not affect cleavage of Notch. We also studied the expression of TPPP and NDUFS7 in control and AD brain and found NDUFS7 to be highly expressed in vulnerable neurons such as pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus, whereas TPPP was found to accumulate in intraneuronal granules and fibrous structures in hippocampus from AD cases. In summary, we here report on two proteins, TPPP and NDUFS7, which interact with γ-secretase and alter the Aß levels without affecting Notch cleavage.