Adaptive immunity to fungi.

Only a handful of the more than 100,000 fungal species on our planet cause disease in humans, yet the number of life-threatening fungal infections in patients has recently skyrocketed as a result of advances in medical care that often suppress immunity intensely. This emerging crisis has created pressing needs to clarify immune defense mechanisms against fungi, with the ultimate goal of therapeutic applications. Herein, we describe recent insights in understanding the mammalian immune defenses deployed against pathogenic fungi. The review focuses on adaptive immune responses to the major medically important fungi and emphasizes how dendritic cells and subsets in various anatomic compartments respond to fungi, recognize their molecular patterns, and signal responses that nurture and shape the differentiation of T cell subsets and B cells. Also emphasized is how the latter deploy effector and regulatory mechanisms that eliminate these nasty invaders while also constraining collateral damage to vital tissue.

Genotoxic aldehyde stress prematurely ages hematopoietic stem cells in a p53-driven manner.

Aged hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) display diminished self-renewal and a myeloid differentiation bias. However, the drivers and mechanisms that underpin this fundamental switch are not understood. HSCs produce genotoxic formaldehyde that requires protection by the detoxification enzymes ALDH2 and ADH5 and the Fanconi anemia (FA) DNA repair pathway. We find that the HSCs in young Aldh2-/-Fancd2-/- mice harbor a transcriptomic signature equivalent to aged wild-type HSCs, along with increased epigenetic age, telomere attrition, and myeloid-biased differentiation quantified by single HSC transplantation. In addition, the p53 response is vigorously activated in Aldh2-/-Fancd2-/- HSCs, while p53 deletion rescued this aged HSC phenotype. To further define the origins of the myeloid differentiation bias, we use a GFP genetic reporter to find a striking enrichment of Vwf+ myeloid and megakaryocyte-lineage-biased HSCs. These results indicate that metabolism-derived formaldehyde-DNA damage stimulates the p53 response in HSCs to drive accelerated aging.

Paneth Cell-Derived Lysozyme Defines the Composition of Mucolytic Microbiota and the Inflammatory Tone of the Intestine.

Paneth cells are the primary source of C-type lysozyme, a ß-1,4-N-acetylmuramoylhydrolase that enzymatically processes bacterial cell walls. Paneth cells are normally present in human cecum and ascending colon, but are rarely found in descending colon and rectum; Paneth cell metaplasia in this region and aberrant lysozyme production are hallmarks of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) pathology. Here, we examined the impact of aberrant lysozyme production in colonic inflammation. Targeted disruption of Paneth cell lysozyme (Lyz1) protected mice from experimental colitis. Lyz1-deficiency diminished intestinal immune responses to bacterial molecular patterns and resulted in the expansion of lysozyme-sensitive mucolytic bacteria, including Ruminococcus gnavus, a Crohn's disease-associated pathobiont. Ectopic lysozyme production in colonic epithelium suppressed lysozyme-sensitive bacteria and exacerbated colitis. Transfer of R. gnavus into Lyz1-/- hosts elicited a type 2 immune response, causing epithelial reprograming and enhanced anti-colitogenic capacity. In contrast, in lysozyme-intact hosts, processed R. gnavus drove pro-inflammatory responses. Thus, Paneth cell lysozyme balances intestinal anti- and pro-inflammatory responses, with implications for IBD.

METTL1-mediated m7G modification of Arg-TCT tRNA drives oncogenic transformation.

The emerging "epitranscriptomics" field is providing insights into the biological and pathological roles of different RNA modifications. The RNA methyltransferase METTL1 catalyzes N7-methylguanosine (m7G) modification of tRNAs. Here we find METTL1 is frequently amplified and overexpressed in cancers and is associated with poor patient survival. METTL1 depletion causes decreased abundance of m7G-modified tRNAs and altered cell cycle and inhibits oncogenicity. Conversely, METTL1 overexpression induces oncogenic cell transformation and cancer. Mechanistically, we find increased abundance of m7G-modified tRNAs, in particular Arg-TCT-4-1, and increased translation of mRNAs, including cell cycle regulators that are enriched in the corresponding AGA codon. Accordingly, Arg-TCT expression is elevated in many tumor types and is associated with patient survival, and strikingly, overexpression of this individual tRNA induces oncogenic transformation. Thus, METTL1-mediated tRNA modification drives oncogenic transformation through a remodeling of the mRNA "translatome" to increase expression of growth-promoting proteins and represents a promising anti-cancer target.

Innate cell communication kick-starts pathogen-specific immunity.

Innate cells are responsible for the rapid recognition of infection and mediate essential mechanisms of pathogen elimination, and also facilitate adaptive immune responses. We review here the numerous intricate interactions among innate cells that initiate protective immunity. The efficient eradication of pathogens depends on the coordinated actions of multiple cells, including innate cells and epithelial cells. Rather than acting as isolated effector cells, innate cells are in constant communication with other responding cells of the immune system, locally and distally. These interactions are critically important for the efficient control of primary infections as well for the development of 'trained' innate cells that facilitate the rapid elimination of homologous or heterologous infections.

The longitudinal dynamics and natural history of clonal haematopoiesis.

Clonal expansions driven by somatic mutations become pervasive across human tissues with age, including in the haematopoietic system, where the phenomenon is termed clonal haematopoiesis1-4. The understanding of how and when clonal haematopoiesis develops, the factors that govern its behaviour, how it interacts with ageing and how these variables relate to malignant progression remains limited5,6. Here we track 697 clonal haematopoiesis clones from 385 individuals 55 years of age or older over a median of 13 years. We find that 92.4% of clones expanded at a stable exponential rate over the study period, with different mutations driving substantially different growth rates, ranging from 5% (DNMT3A and TP53) to more than 50% per year (SRSF2P95H). Growth rates of clones with the same mutation differed by approximately ±5% per year, proportionately affecting slow drivers more substantially. By combining our time-series data with phylogenetic analysis of 1,731 whole-genome sequences of haematopoietic colonies from 7 individuals from an older age group, we reveal distinct patterns of lifelong clonal behaviour. DNMT3A-mutant clones preferentially expanded early in life and displayed slower growth in old age, in the context of an increasingly competitive oligoclonal landscape. By contrast, splicing gene mutations drove expansion only later in life, whereas TET2-mutant clones emerged across all ages. Finally, we show that mutations driving faster clonal growth carry a higher risk of malignant progression. Our findings characterize the lifelong natural history of clonal haematopoiesis and give fundamental insights into the interactions between somatic mutation, ageing and clonal selection.

Clonal dynamics of haematopoiesis across the human lifespan.

Age-related change in human haematopoiesis causes reduced regenerative capacity1, cytopenias2, immune dysfunction3 and increased risk of blood cancer4-6, but the reason for such abrupt functional decline after 70 years of age remains unclear. Here we sequenced 3,579 genomes from single cell-derived colonies of haematopoietic cells across 10 human subjects from 0 to 81 years of age. Haematopoietic stem cells or multipotent progenitors (HSC/MPPs) accumulated a mean of 17 mutations per year after birth and lost 30 base pairs per year of telomere length. Haematopoiesis in adults less than 65 years of age was massively polyclonal, with high clonal diversity and a stable population of 20,000-200,000 HSC/MPPs contributing evenly to blood production. By contrast, haematopoiesis in individuals aged over 75 showed profoundly decreased clonal diversity. In each of the older subjects, 30-60% of haematopoiesis was accounted for by 12-18 independent clones, each contributing 1-34% of blood production. Most clones had begun their expansion before the subject was 40 years old, but only 22% had known driver mutations. Genome-wide selection analysis estimated that between 1 in 34 and 1 in 12 non-synonymous mutations were drivers, accruing at constant rates throughout life, affecting more genes than identified in blood cancers. Loss of the Y chromosome conferred selective benefits in males. Simulations of haematopoiesis, with constant stem cell population size and constant acquisition of driver mutations conferring moderate fitness benefits, entirely explained the abrupt change in clonal structure in the elderly. Rapidly decreasing clonal diversity is a universal feature of haematopoiesis in aged humans, underpinned by pervasive positive selection acting on many more genes than currently identified.

Bulevirtide Combined with Pegylated Interferon for Chronic Hepatitis D.

BACKGROUND: In a phase 3 trial, bulevirtide monotherapy led to a virologic response in patients with chronic hepatitis D. Pegylated interferon (peginterferon) alfa-2a is recommended by guidelines as an off-label treatment for this disease. The role of combination therapy with bulevirtide and peginterferon alfa-2a, particularly with regard to finite treatment, is unclear. METHODS: In this phase 2b, open-label trial, we randomly assigned patients to receive peginterferon alfa-2a alone (180 µg per week) for 48 weeks; bulevirtide at a daily dose of 2 mg or 10 mg plus peginterferon alfa-2a (180 µg per week) for 48 weeks, followed by the same daily dose of bulevirtide for 48 weeks; or bulevirtide at a daily dose of 10 mg alone for 96 weeks. All the patients were followed for 48 weeks after the end of treatment. The primary end point was an undetectable level of hepatitis D virus (HDV) RNA at 24 weeks after the end of treatment. The primary comparison was between the 10-mg bulevirtide plus peginterferon alfa-2a group and the 10-mg bulevirtide monotherapy group. RESULTS: A total of 24 patients received peginterferon alfa-2a alone, 50 received 2 mg and 50 received 10 mg of bulevirtide plus peginterferon alfa-2a, and 50 received 10 mg of bulevirtide monotherapy. At 24 weeks after the end of treatment, HDV RNA was undetectable in 17% of the patients in the peginterferon alfa-2a group, in 32% of those in the 2-mg bulevirtide plus peginterferon alfa-2a group, in 46% of those in the 10-mg bulevirtide plus peginterferon alfa-2a group, and in 12% of those in the 10-mg bulevirtide group. For the primary comparison, the between-group difference was 34 percentage points (95% confidence interval, 15 to 50; P<0.001). At 48 weeks after the end of treatment, HDV RNA was undetectable in 25% of the patients in the peginterferon alfa-2a group, in 26% of those in the 2-mg bulevirtide plus peginterferon alfa-2a group, in 46% of those in the 10-mg bulevirtide plus peginterferon alfa-2a group, and in 12% of those in the 10-mg bulevirtide group. The most frequent adverse events were leukopenia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia. The majority of adverse events were of grade 1 or 2 in severity. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of 10-mg bulevirtide plus peginterferon alfa-2a was superior to bulevirtide monotherapy with regard to an undetectable HDV RNA level at 24 weeks after the end of treatment. (Funded by Gilead Sciences; MYR 204 ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03852433.).

Phase 3 Trial of Crinecerfont in Pediatric Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.

BACKGROUND: Children with classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency require treatment with glucocorticoids, usually at supraphysiologic doses, to address cortisol insufficiency and reduce excess adrenal androgens. However, such treatment confers a predisposition to glucocorticoid-related complications. In 2-week phase 2 trials, patients with CAH who received crinecerfont, a new oral corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor antagonist, had decreases in androstenedione levels. METHODS: In this phase 3, multinational, randomized trial, we assigned pediatric participants with CAH, in a 2:1 ratio, to receive crinecerfont or placebo for 28 weeks. A stable glucocorticoid dose was maintained for 4 weeks, and the dose was then adjusted to a target of 8.0 to 10.0 mg per square meter of body-surface area per day (hydrocortisone dose equivalents), provided that the androstenedione level was controlled (≤120% of the baseline level or within the reference range). The primary efficacy end point was the change in the androstenedione level from baseline to week 4. A key secondary end point was the percent change in the glucocorticoid dose from baseline to week 28 while androstenedione control was maintained. RESULTS: A total of 103 participants underwent randomization, of whom 69 were assigned to the crinecerfont group and 34 to the placebo group; 100 (97%) remained in the trial at 28 weeks. At baseline, the mean glucocorticoid dose was 16.4 mg per square meter per day, and the mean androstenedione level was 431 ng per deciliter (15.0 nmol per liter). At week 4, the androstenedione level was substantially reduced in the crinecerfont group (-197 ng per deciliter [-6.9 nmol per liter]) but increased in the placebo group (71 ng per deciliter [2.5 nmol per liter]) (least-squares mean difference, -268 ng per deciliter [-9.3 nmol per liter]; P<0.001); the observed mean androstenedione value, obtained before the morning glucocorticoid dose, was 208 ng per deciliter (7.3 nmol per liter) in the crinecerfont group, as compared with 545 ng per deciliter (19.0 nmol per liter) in the placebo group. At week 28, the mean glucocorticoid dose had decreased (while androstenedione control was maintained) by 18.0% with crinecerfont but increased by 5.6% with placebo (least-squares mean difference, -23.5 percentage points; P<0.001). Headache, pyrexia, and vomiting were the most common adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: In this phase 3 trial, crinecerfont was superior to placebo in reducing elevated androstenedione levels in pediatric participants with CAH and was also associated with a decrease in the glucocorticoid dose from supraphysiologic to physiologic levels while androstenedione control was maintained. (Funded by Neurocrine Biosciences; CAHtalyst Pediatric ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT04806451.).

Small-molecule inhibition of METTL3 as a strategy against myeloid leukaemia.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is an abundant internal RNA modification1,2 that is catalysed predominantly by the METTL3-METTL14 methyltransferase complex3,4. The m6A methyltransferase METTL3 has been linked to the initiation and maintenance of acute myeloid leukaemia (AML), but the potential of therapeutic applications targeting this enzyme remains unknown5-7. Here we present the identification and characterization of STM2457, a highly potent and selective first-in-class catalytic inhibitor of METTL3, and a crystal structure of STM2457 in complex with METTL3-METTL14. Treatment of tumours with STM2457 leads to reduced AML growth and an increase in differentiation and apoptosis. These cellular effects are accompanied by selective reduction of m6A levels on known leukaemogenic mRNAs and a decrease in their expression consistent with a translational defect. We demonstrate that pharmacological inhibition of METTL3 in vivo leads to impaired engraftment and prolonged survival in various mouse models of AML, specifically targeting key stem cell subpopulations of AML. Collectively, these results reveal the inhibition of METTL3 as a potential therapeutic strategy against AML, and provide proof of concept that the targeting of RNA-modifying enzymes represents a promising avenue for anticancer therapy.

The lifelong natural history of clonal hematopoiesis and its links to myeloid neoplasia.

ABSTRACT: The study of somatic mutations and the associated clonal mosaicism across the human body has transformed our understanding of aging and its links to cancer. In proliferative human tissues, stem cells compete for dominance, and those with an advantage expand clonally to outgrow their peers. In the hematopoietic system, such expansion is termed clonal hematopoiesis (CH). The forces driving competition, namely heterogeneity of the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) pool and attrition of their environment, become increasingly prominent with age. As a result, CH becomes progressively more common through life to the point of becoming essentially ubiquitous. We are beginning to unravel the specific intracellular and extracellular factors underpinning clonal behavior, with somatic mutations in specific driver genes, inflammation, telomere maintenance, extraneous exposures, and inherited genetic variation among the important players. The inevitability of CH with age combined with its unequivocal links to myeloid cancers poses a scientific and clinical challenge. Specifically, we need to decipher the factors determining clonal behavior and develop prognostic tools to identify those at high risk of malignant progression, for whom preventive interventions may be warranted. Here, we discuss how recent advances in our understanding of the natural history of CH have provided important insights into these processes and helped define future avenues of investigation.

Activation of human STING by a molecular glue-like compound.

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is a dimeric transmembrane adapter protein that plays a key role in the human innate immune response to infection and has been therapeutically exploited for its antitumor activity. The activation of STING requires its high-order oligomerization, which could be induced by binding of the endogenous ligand, cGAMP, to the cytosolic ligand-binding domain. Here we report the discovery through functional screens of a class of compounds, named NVS-STGs, that activate human STING. Our cryo-EM structures show that NVS-STG2 induces the high-order oligomerization of human STING by binding to a pocket between the transmembrane domains of the neighboring STING dimers, effectively acting as a molecular glue. Our functional assays showed that NVS-STG2 could elicit potent STING-mediated immune responses in cells and antitumor activities in animal models.

Selective inhibition of the BD2 bromodomain of BET proteins in prostate cancer.

Proteins of the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) domain family are epigenetic readers that bind acetylated histones through their bromodomains to regulate gene transcription. Dual-bromodomain BET inhibitors (DbBi) that bind with similar affinities to the first (BD1) and second (BD2) bromodomains of BRD2, BRD3, BRD4 and BRDt have displayed modest clinical activity in monotherapy cancer trials. A reduced number of thrombocytes in the blood (thrombocytopenia) as well as symptoms of gastrointestinal toxicity are dose-limiting adverse events for some types of DbBi1-5. Given that similar haematological and gastrointestinal defects were observed after genetic silencing of Brd4 in mice6, the platelet and gastrointestinal toxicities may represent on-target activities associated with BET inhibition. The two individual bromodomains in BET family proteins may have distinct functions7-9 and different cellular phenotypes after pharmacological inhibition of one or both bromodomains have been reported10,11, suggesting that selectively targeting one of the bromodomains may result in a different efficacy and tolerability profile compared with DbBi. Available compounds that are selective to individual domains lack sufficient potency and the pharmacokinetics properties that are required for in vivo efficacy and tolerability assessment10-13. Here we carried out a medicinal chemistry campaign that led to the discovery of ABBV-744, a highly potent and selective inhibitor of the BD2 domain of BET family proteins with drug-like properties. In contrast to the broad range of cell growth inhibition induced by DbBi, the antiproliferative activity of ABBV-744 was largely, but not exclusively, restricted to cell lines of acute myeloid leukaemia and prostate cancer that expressed the full-length androgen receptor (AR). ABBV-744 retained robust activity in prostate cancer xenografts, and showed fewer platelet and gastrointestinal toxicities than the DbBi ABBV-07514. Analyses of RNA expression and chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing revealed that ABBV-744 displaced BRD4 from AR-containing super-enhancers and inhibited AR-dependent transcription, with less impact on global transcription compared with ABBV-075. These results underscore the potential value of selectively targeting the BD2 domain of BET family proteins for cancer therapy.

HBO1 is required for the maintenance of leukaemia stem cells.

Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) is a heterogeneous disease characterized by transcriptional dysregulation that results in a block in differentiation and increased malignant self-renewal. Various epigenetic therapies aimed at reversing these hallmarks of AML have progressed into clinical trials, but most show only modest efficacy owing to an inability to effectively eradicate leukaemia stem cells (LSCs)1. Here, to specifically identify novel dependencies in LSCs, we screened a bespoke library of small hairpin RNAs that target chromatin regulators in a unique ex vivo mouse model of LSCs. We identify the MYST acetyltransferase HBO1 (also known as KAT7 or MYST2) and several known members of the HBO1 protein complex as critical regulators of LSC maintenance. Using CRISPR domain screening and quantitative mass spectrometry, we identified the histone acetyltransferase domain of HBO1 as being essential in the acetylation of histone H3 at K14. H3 acetylated at K14 (H3K14ac) facilitates the processivity of RNA polymerase II to maintain the high expression of key genes (including Hoxa9 and Hoxa10) that help to sustain the functional properties of LSCs. To leverage this dependency therapeutically, we developed a highly potent small-molecule inhibitor of HBO1 and demonstrate its mode of activity as a competitive analogue of acetyl-CoA. Inhibition of HBO1 phenocopied our genetic data and showed efficacy in a broad range of human cell lines and primary AML cells from patients. These biological, structural and chemical insights into a therapeutic target in AML will enable the clinical translation of these findings.

A 14th century CE Brucella melitensis genome and the recent expansion of the Western Mediterranean clade.

Brucellosis is a disease caused by the bacterium Brucella and typically transmitted through contact with infected ruminants. It is one of the most common chronic zoonotic diseases and of particular interest to public health agencies. Despite its well-known transmission history and characteristic symptoms, we lack a more complete understanding of the evolutionary history of its best-known species-Brucella melitensis. To address this knowledge gap we fortuitously found, sequenced and assembled a high-quality ancient B. melitensis draft genome from the kidney stone of a 14th-century Italian friar. The ancient strain contained fewer core genes than modern B. melitensis isolates, carried a complete complement of virulence genes, and did not contain any indication of significant antimicrobial resistances. The ancient B. melitensis genome fell as a basal sister lineage to a subgroup of B. melitensis strains within the Western Mediterranean phylogenetic group, with a short branch length indicative of its earlier sampling time, along with a similar gene content. By calibrating the molecular clock we suggest that the speciation event between B. melitensis and B. abortus is contemporaneous with the estimated time frame for the domestication of both sheep and goats. These results confirm the existence of the Western Mediterranean clade as a separate group in the 14th CE and suggest that its divergence was due to human and ruminant co-migration.

Effect of helminth-induced immunity on infections with microbial pathogens.

Helminth infections are ubiquitous worldwide and can trigger potent immune responses that differ from and potentially antagonize host protective responses to microbial pathogens. In this Review we focus on the three main killers in infectious disease-AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria-and critically assesses whether helminths adversely influence host control of these diseases. We also discuss emerging concepts for how M2 macrophages and helminth-modulated dendritic cells can potentially influence the protective immune response to concurrent infections. Finally, we present evidence advocating for more efforts to determine how and to what extent helminths interfere with the successful control of specific concurrent coinfections.

Prevalence and significance of DDX41 gene variants in the general population.

Germ line variants in the DDX41 gene have been linked to myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) development. However, the risks associated with different variants remain unknown, as do the basis of their leukemogenic properties, impact on steady-state hematopoiesis, and links to other cancers. Here, we investigate the frequency and significance of DDX41 variants in 454 792 United Kingdom Biobank (UKB) participants and identify 452 unique nonsynonymous DNA variants in 3538 (1/129) individuals. Many were novel, and the prevalence of most varied markedly by ancestry. Among the 1059 individuals with germ line pathogenic variants (DDX41-GPV) 34 developed MDS/AML (odds ratio, 12.3 vs noncarriers). Of these, 7 of 218 had start-lost, 22 of 584 had truncating, and 5 of 257 had missense (odds ratios: 12.9, 15.1, and 7.5, respectively). Using multivariate logistic regression, we found significant associations of DDX41-GPV with MDS, AML, and family history of leukemia but not lymphoma, myeloproliferative neoplasms, or other cancers. We also report that DDX41-GPV carriers do not have an increased prevalence of clonal hematopoiesis (CH). In fact, CH was significantly more common before sporadic vs DDX41-mutant MDS/AML, revealing distinct evolutionary paths. Furthermore, somatic mutation rates did not differ between sporadic and DDX41-mutant AML genomes, ruling out genomic instability as a driver of the latter. Finally, we found that higher mean red cell volume (MCV) and somatic DDX41 mutations in blood DNA identify DDX41-GPV carriers at increased MDS/AML risk. Collectively, our findings give new insights into the prevalence and cognate risks associated with DDX41 variants, as well as the clonal evolution and early detection of DDX41-mutant MDS/AML.

HOXA9 forms a repressive complex with nuclear matrix-associated protein SAFB to maintain acute myeloid leukemia.

HOXA9 is commonly upregulated in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), in which it confers a poor prognosis. Characterizing the protein interactome of endogenous HOXA9 in human AML, we identified a chromatin complex of HOXA9 with the nuclear matrix attachment protein SAFB. SAFB perturbation phenocopied HOXA9 knockout to decrease AML proliferation, increase differentiation and apoptosis in vitro, and prolong survival in vivo. Integrated genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic analyses further demonstrated that the HOXA9-SAFB (H9SB)-chromatin complex associates with nucleosome remodeling and histone deacetylase (NuRD) and HP1γ to repress the expression of factors associated with differentiation and apoptosis, including NOTCH1, CEBPδ, S100A8, and CDKN1A. Chemical or genetic perturbation of NuRD and HP1γ-associated catalytic activity also triggered differentiation, apoptosis, and the induction of these tumor-suppressive genes. Importantly, this mechanism is operative in other HOXA9-dependent AML genotypes. This mechanistic insight demonstrates the active HOXA9-dependent differentiation block as a potent mechanism of disease maintenance in AML that may be amenable to therapeutic intervention by targeting the H9SB interface and/or NuRD and HP1γ activity.

Effect of olanzapine exposure on relapse and brain structure in patients with major depressive disorder with psychotic features.

Some data suggest that antipsychotics may adversely affect brain structure. We examined the relationship among olanzapine exposure, relapse, and changes in brain structure in patients with major depressive disorder with psychotic features. We analyzed data from the Study of the Pharmacotherapy of Psychotic Depression II trial (STOP-PD II), a randomized, placebo-controlled trial in patients with psychotic depression who attained remission on sertraline and olanzapine and were randomized to continue sertraline plus olanzapine or placebo for 36 weeks. Olanzapine steady state concentration (SSC) were calculated based on sparsely-sampled levels. Rates of relapse and changes in brain structure were assessed as outcomes. There were significant associations between dosage and relapse rates (N = 118; HR = 0.94, 95% CI [0.897, 0.977], p = 0.002) or changes in left cortical thickness (N = 44; B = -2.0 × 10-3, 95% CI [-3.1 × 10-3, -9.6 × 10-4], p < 0.001) and between SSC and changes in left cortical thickness (N = 44; B = -8.7 × 10-4, 95% CI [-1.4 × 10-3, -3.6 × 10-4], p = 0.001). Similar results were found for the right cortex. These associations were no longer significant when the analysis was restricted to participants treated with olanzapine. Our findings suggest that, within its therapeutic range, the effect of olanzapine on relapse or cortical thickness does not depend on its dosage or SSC. Further research is needed on the effect of olanzapine and other antipsychotics on mood symptoms and brain structure.

Emerging Roles of Growth Differentiation Factor 15 in Immunoregulation and Pathogenesis.

Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) is a cytokine that is widely used as a biomarker for the severity of diverse disease states. It also has been shown to play a protective role after tissue injury and to promote a negative energy balance during obesity and diabetes. In addition to its metabolic effects, GDF-15 also regulates the host's immune responses to infectious and noninfectious diseases. GDF-15 can suppress a type 1 and, in contrast, promote a type 2 inflammatory response. In this brief review, we discuss how GDF-15 affects the effector function and recruitment of immune cells, the pathways that induce its expression, and the diverse mechanisms by which it is regulated during inflammation and infection. We further highlight outstanding questions that should be the focus of future investigations in this emerging field.