An analysis of body proportions in children with CHARGE syndrome using photogrammetric anthropometry.

BACKGROUND: Growth retardation is one of the main hallmarks of CHARGE syndrome (CS), yet little is known about the body proportions of these children. Knowledge of body proportions in CS may contribute to a better characterization of this syndrome. This knowledge is important when considering starting growth-stimulating therapy. METHODS: For this cross-sectional study, we selected 32 children with CS and a CHD7 mutation at the Dutch CHARGE Family Day in 2016 or 2017 and the International CHARGE conference in Orlando, Florida, in 2017. We used photogrammetric anthropometry-a measurement method based on digital photographs-to determine various body proportions. We compared these to measurements in 21 normally proportioned children with growth hormone deficiency, using independent-samples t test, Mann-Whitney U test, or chi-square test as appropriate. RESULTS: Children with CS appear to have a shorter trunk in proportion to their height, head length, and arm length. Children with CS also had smaller feet proportional to tibia length compared to controls. The change of body proportions with age was similar in children with CS and controls. CONCLUSION: Body proportions in children with CS are significantly different from those of normally proportioned controls, but a similar change of body proportions with age was noted for both groups.

Effect of growth hormone treatment on energy expenditure and its relation to first-year growth response in children.

PURPOSE: The effects of growth hormone (GH) treatment on linear growth and body composition have been studied extensively. Little is known about the GH effect on energy expenditure (EE). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of GH treatment on EE in children, and to study whether the changes in EE can predict the height gain after 1 year. METHODS: Total EE (TEE), basal metabolic rate (BMR), and physical activity level (PAL) measurements before and after 6 weeks of GH treatment were performed in 18 prepubertal children (5 girls, 13 boys) born small for gestational age (n = 14) or with growth hormone deficiency (n = 4) who were eligible for GH treatment. TEE was measured with the doubly labelled water method, BMR was measured with an open-circuit ventilated hood system, PAL was assessed using an accelerometer for movement registration and calculated (PAL = TEE/BMR), activity related EE (AEE) was calculated [AEE = (0.9 × TEE) - BMR]. Height measurements at start and after 1 year of GH treatment were analysed. This is a 1-year longitudinal intervention study, without a control group for comparison. RESULTS: BMR and TEE increased significantly (resp. 5% and 7%). Physical activity (counts/day), PAL, and AEE did not change. 11 out of 13 patients (85%) with an increased TEE after 6 weeks of GH treatment had a good first-year growth response (∆height SDS > 0.5). CONCLUSIONS: GH treatment showed a positive effect on EE in prepubertal children after 6 weeks. No effect on physical activity was observed. The increase in TEE appeared to be valuable for the prediction of good first-year growth responders to GH treatment.

Body proportions in children with Kabuki syndrome.

Facial characteristics, short stature, and skeletal anomalies have been described for the clinical diagnosis of Kabuki Syndrome (KS) in children. However, no studies have investigated body proportions in KS. Knowledge of body proportions in KS may contribute to better insight into the growth pattern and characterization of this genetic disorder. Therefore we compared body proportions of children with KS to normally proportioned controls to investigate if atypical body proportions are part of this genetic disorder. This study was designed and conducted within the setting of the Maastricht University Medical Centre (MUMC+), the official Dutch expert center for Kabuki syndrome. We conducted a cross-sectional study in 32 children (11 children with KS and 21 controls). Body proportions were determined by means of photogrammetric anthropometry, measurements based on digital photography. Body proportions, quantified as body ratios, differ significantly in children with KS from normally proportioned children. Children with KS have larger heads and longer arms proportional to their trunks and have been found to have longer upper arms proportional to their tibia length and feet. Based on deviations in body proportions it was shown possible to discern children with KS from normally proportioned controls.

Growth and endothelial function in the first 2 years of life.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that the inverse association between infant growth and endothelial function at 6 months would persist to 24 months and that accelerated growth would lead to an increased percent body fat, which would, in turn, impact negatively on endothelial function. STUDY DESIGN: In a prospective observational study, 104 healthy term newborns underwent anthropometry and measurements of vascular vasodilation at 0, 6, 12, and 24 months. We recorded maximum vasodilation in response to acetylcholine (endothelium-dependent) and nitroprusside (endothelium-independent) by use of laser-Doppler vascular perfusion monitoring of the forearm skin vasculature. Additional anthropometry at 1 and 3 months was collected from child welfare centers. The data were analyzed by multilevel linear regression. RESULTS: Weight gain from 0-1 month was associated inversely with maximum perfusion in response to acetylcholine at the age of 2 years (b = -8.28 perfusion units [PU] per Δ z-score, P = .03). Weight gain from 0-1 month was related positively to maximum perfusion in response to nitroprusside (b = 10.12 PU per Δ z-score, P = .04), as was birth weight (b = 8.02 PU per z-score, P = .02). Body fat percentage did not have a significant effect in any of the perfusion models and was not related to maximum perfusion at 2 years. CONCLUSION: Infant weight gain from 0-1 month is inversely related to endothelial function in healthy term infants, at least to the age of 2 years. This relationship was not explained by an increased percentage body fat.

Determinants of infant growth in four age windows: a twin study.

OBJECTIVE: To identify determinants of growth during infancy. STUDY DESIGN: The sample included 424 twin pairs from the East Flanders Prospective Twin Survey. Multilevel regression analysis was performed and intrapair growth correlations were calculated. The main outcome measure was growth, measured in g/kg/d (0-1 month) or in change in weight z-score (0-6, 6-12 and 12-24 months). RESULTS: Growth during infancy was associated with birth weight and gestational age. One z-score increase in birth weight resulted in -1.77 g/kg/d less growth from 0-1 month (P < .0001). The effect size decreased with age until -0.02 (P = .70) z-scores less growth from 12 to 24 months. Corresponding numbers for one z-score increase in gestational age decreased from 0.78 (P = .001) to 0.06 (P = .40). From 12 to 24 months, paternal height had a significant positive effect. The difference in growth similarity within the twin pair between monozygotic and dizygotic twins increased from non-significant from 0 to 1 month (P = .49) to a monozygotic:dizygotic ratio approximating 2:1 from 12 to 24 months (P = .002). CONCLUSION: From 0 to 1 month, environmental factors are most important for growth, whereas genetic factors become more important over time. This is a first step in identifying age windows for future counseling and interventions on the effects of accelerated growth.

Follow-Up Study of Growth Hormone Therapy in Children with Kabuki Syndrome: Two-Year Treatment Results.

INTRODUCTION: Kabuki syndrome (KS) is a genetic disorder with characteristic facial dysmorphisms, short stature, hypertension, and obesity later in life. The aim of this study was to evaluate catch-up growth and cardiovascular markers before and during growth hormone (rhGH) treatment in KS children. METHODS: This prospective study included 18 children whose KS was genetically established. Each KS subject received rhGH for a period of 2 years. Several measurements were performed before and during treatment: anthropometry, glucose metabolism, lipid profile, markers for endothelial function, and low-grade inflammation. RESULTS: This study found an increase in delta height standard deviation score (SDS) for the whole group of 1.1 SDS after 2 years of rhGH treatment. Baseline metabolic profiles showed no cardiometabolic abnormalities in these children. Although 4 out of 18 children were obese, there were no signs of the metabolic syndrome. During rhGH treatment, serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations decreased significantly (2.16-1.91 mmol/L, p = 0.04). Apolipoprotein B100 concentrations also showed a reduction after 24 months of treatment, but the other lipid and (apo)lipoprotein parameters did not change. While other endothelial function markers were stable, only vascular cell-adhesion molecule-1 concentrations increased (1,084-1,161 pg/mL, p < 0.01) during rhGH therapy. Furthermore, BMI and waist circumference improved during treatment. There were no signs of hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: At baseline and during rhGH therapy, there were no signs of the metabolic syndrome. This is the first study demonstrating that rhGH treatment in KS children is a safe and effective therapy and that it positively influences linear height without exerting adverse effects on a wide array of cardiovascular risk markers.

Changes in Free-Living Glycemic Profiles after 12 Months of Lifestyle Intervention in Children with Overweight and with Obesity.

Previous studies demonstrated that hyperglycemic glucose concentrations are observed in children that are overweight or have obesity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a 12 month lifestyle intervention on free-living glycemic profiles in children that were overweight or had obesity, and the association of the alterations with changes in cardiovascular risk parameters. BMI z-score, free-living glycemic profiles, continuous overlapping net glycemic action (CONGA), and cardiovascular parameters were evaluated before and after a multidisciplinary lifestyle intervention, in 33 non-diabetic children that were overweight or had obesity. In children with a decrease in BMI z-score, the duration which glucose concentrations were above the high-normal threshold (6.7 mmol/L) and the glycemic variability decreased significantly. In these children, a decrease in median sensor glucose was associated with decreases in LDL-cholesterol, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure z-score. A decrease in BMI z-score was associated with a decrease in CONGA1, 2, and 4. In conclusion, the glycemic profiles in free-living conditions in children that were overweight improved in children with a decrease in BMI z-score after lifestyle intervention. In those children, changes in median sensor glucose concentrations were associated with changes in LDL-cholesterol and blood pressure z-scores. These results suggest that glucose homeostasis can improve after one year of lifestyle intervention and that these improvements are associated with improvements in cardiovascular health parameters.

Association of TSH With Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Overweight and Obese Children During Lifestyle Intervention.

Context: Overweight and obese children have an increased risk to develop cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in which thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) has been suggested as an intermediary factor. However, results of cross-sectional studies are inconclusive, and intervention studies investigating changes in TSH concentrations in association with changes in cardiovascular risk parameters in overweight and obese children are scarce. Objective: To gain insight in associations of circulating TSH concentrations and cardiovascular risk parameters in overweight and obese children. Design: Nonrandomized lifestyle intervention. Setting: Centre for Overweight Adolescent and Children's Healthcare. Patients: Three hundred thirty euthyroid overweight and obese children. Intervention: Long-term lifestyle intervention. Main Outcome Measures: TSH concentrations, pituitary TSH release in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), and cardiovascular risk parameters. Results: At baseline, serum total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triacylglycerol (TAG), and monocyte chemotactic protein 1 concentrations were significantly associated with serum TSH concentrations. TSH release by the pituitary in response to exogenous TRH was not associated with cardiovascular risk parameters. During lifestyle intervention, several cardiovascular risk parameters significantly improved. In children whose body mass index z score improved, changes in TSH concentrations were significantly associated with changes in TC, LDL-C, and TAG concentrations. Conclusions: In euthyroid overweight and obese children, circulating TSH concentrations are positively associated with markers representing increased CVD risk. Changes in TSH concentrations are also associated with changes in lipid concentrations in children with successful weight loss, which is consistent with TSH being an intermediary factor in modulating lipid and lipoprotein metabolism.

Short-term effects of growth hormone on body composition as a predictor of growth.

The objective of this study was to investigate whether short-term changes in metabolism, as a result of GH therapy, could be used to predict its growth effect after 1 yr. Twenty-eight children (8.7 +/- 2.8 yr) were selected, based on anthropometric criteria characterizing GH-deficient patients. In addition, 21 healthy, age- and sex-matched controls (8.9 +/- 3.1 yr) were included. Total body water (TBW) and height were measured before and at 6 wk and 1 yr after the start of treatment. After 1 yr of treatment, patients were divided into good and poor responders, based on a change in height of at least 0.7 SD. Because individuals of different heights were compared, changes in TBW after 6 wk were corrected for height(2), in accordance with the body mass index. Eighty percent of the children who showed a good response to GH therapy had a change in TBW divided by height(2) exceeding the 2 SD reference line of the controls. In contrast, poor responders did not differ from controls. Maximum GH concentrations found during endocrine tests were not significantly different between good and poor responders. Changes in body composition data, after 6 wk, proved valuable in identifying good responders to GH therapy.

Change in total body water as a predictive tool for growth hormone treatment response.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: To investigate whether short-term changes in body composition as a result of growth hormone therapy could be used to predict its growth effect after 1 year in children with growth hormone deficiency (GHD) and children born small for gestational age (SGA). METHODS: 88 GHD children and 99 SGA children who started treatment with recombinant human growth hormone were included. Total body water (TBW) and height were measured. After 1 year, patients were divided into adequate and inadequate responders. RESULTS: In GHD and SGA children a sensitivity of 87 and 53%, respectively, and a specificity of 58 and 83%, respectively, were found. The positive predictive values for GHD and SGA children were 73 and 90%, respectively. The negative predictive values were 75 and 32%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Changes in body composition data measured by TBW are a valuable tool to correctly predict 75% of the GHD children and are only useful in SGA children when the change in TBW is above the cut-off value of 0.7 l/m(2).

Endothelial vasodilatation in newborns is related to body size and maternal hypertension.

OBJECTIVE: The fetal response to an adverse intrauterine environment - reflected in low birth weight - is thought to cause an increased risk for adult hypertension. A possible mechanism by which fetal adaptive responses contribute to hypertension is an adverse effect on endothelial function. Identifying individuals with endothelial dysfunction as early as possible may assist in understanding the inverse association between birth weight and hypertension. The present study aimed to identify determinants of endothelial vasodilatation in the first week of life. METHODS: One hundred and four term newborns were studied in the first week after birth with regard to maximum vasodilatation in response to acetylcholine (endothelium-dependent) and nitroprusside (endothelium-independent) in the vasculature of the forearm skin, by use of a laser-Doppler device and iontophoresis. Bivariable and multivariable linear regression with various familial, gestational and neonatal potential covariates were used for the analysis. RESULTS: In the bivariable analysis, maximum perfusion after administration of acetylcholine was positively associated with birth weight, length, head circumference and maternal education level, but negatively associated with maternal hypertension during pregnancy. In the multivariable analysis, head circumference [b = 11.9 perfusion units/z-score, P = 0.02] and hypertension during pregnancy (b = -25.3 perfusion units from nonhypertensive to hypertensive, P = 0.02) remained significantly associated. Maximum perfusion after administration of nitroprusside was not related to any of the anthropometric measures; it was, however, related to gestational age (b = -11.1 perfusion units/week, P = 0.009). CONCLUSION: This study showed that body size, head circumference in particular, is positively associated with endothelial vasodilatation in newborns, whereas hypertension during pregnancy is inversely associated with endothelial vasodilatation.

Influence of growth during infancy on endothelium-dependent vasodilatation at the age of 6 months.

Low birth weight and accelerated infant growth are associated with cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Endothelial dysfunction is regarded as a precursor of atherosclerosis and is also related to infant growth. We aimed to examine whether an association between infant growth and endothelial function is already present during discrete periods of growth during the first 6 months of life in healthy term infants. A cohort of 104 newborns was studied in the first week after birth and reexamined at the age of 6 months. Maximum vasodilatation in response to acetylcholine (endothelium dependent) and nitroprusside (endothelium independent) was measured in the vasculature of the forearm skin, using laser Doppler flowmetry and iontophoresis. Growth was calculated as difference in Z scores for weight, length, weight-for-length, and head circumference. Multivariable multilevel linear regression was used for the analysis. Growth from 0 to 1 month (calculated as difference in weight) was the only window in the first 6 months of life that was significantly and inversely associated with endothelium-dependent vasodilatation at 6 months (b=-11.72 perfusion units per Z score, P=0.01 in multivariable analysis). Birth size was not important when considered simultaneously with infant growth. Maximum endothelium-independent vasodilatation was not associated with birth size or growth parameters. We conclude that growth in the first month of life is inversely associated with endothelium-dependent vasodilatation at the age of 6 months in healthy term infants, regardless of birth size.

Growth in treated classical galactosemia patients.

Decreased height and weight in treated children with classical galactosemia have been reported. However, growth has not been extensively studied. Patients might be at risk for an abnormal growth because of either disease-related intrinsic factors or diet-related factors. The objective was to gain insight in growth in treated children and adolescents with classical galactosemia. The studied population was a previously reported group of 40 classical galactosemia children. Prenatal growth was evaluated using length, weight and head circumference (HC) data from welfare centers or parents. Postnatal growth was evaluated using three height and weight measurements at baseline, 1 and 2 years to calculate growth velocities. Height Z-score was also corrected for target height Z-score (height Z-score divided by target height Z-score). Linear regression analysis was performed between growth velocities, IGF-I, IGFBP-3, dietary intake and galactose-1-phosphate-uridyltransferase activity. We found normal length (median 50.5 cm), weight (median 3,255 grams) and HC (median 33.9 cm) at birth. Mean height growth velocity was 0.87+/-1.2 for boys and -0.89+/-2.1 for girls, and mean weight growth velocity was 0.91+/-1.6 for boys and -0.74+/-1.3 for girls. Mean height corrected for target height was -1.5+/-0.9 in girls and -0.6+/-0.7 in boys. Height growth velocity was correlated with IGF-I (Pearson correlation= 0.499), IGFBP-3 (Pearson correlation 0.4) and height Z-scores corrected for target height Z-scores (Pearson correlation=0.550). Five children grew beyond the age of 18 years. In conclusion, prenatal growth was normal but postnatal growth was affected. Predicted final height is less than target height in most patients; however, target height might be reached for the children who grow beyond the age of 18. Decreased IGF-I and IGFBP-3 and or suboptimal hormonal replacement in girls might play a role.

The natural history of medium-chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency in the Netherlands: clinical presentation and outcome.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the clinical presentation and long-term follow-up of a large cohort of patients with medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD) deficiency. STUDY DESIGN: A nationwide, retrospective analysis of clinical presentation and follow-up in 155 Dutch patients with MCAD deficiency. RESULTS: Most patients presented between 3 months and 5.1 years of age; 13% had symptoms as neonates not exclusively related to breast-feeding. An acute presentation before the diagnosis was made resulted in a mortality of 22% (25/114), whereas 21% (19/89) developed disabilities after the diagnosis. On follow-up, a total of 44 patients reported fatigue (35%; 28/80), muscle pain (31%; 25/80), and/or reduced exercise tolerance (39%; 31/80). Cardiac evaluation in 11 adult patients revealed no abnormalities in cardiac function explaining these complaints. Children with MCAD deficiency readily become overweight. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality and morbidity were high in undiagnosed children with MCAD deficiency; establishment of the diagnosis significantly improves outcome. Strikingly, after the diagnosis and initiation of treatment, overweight and chronic complaints (fatigue, muscle pain, and reduced exercise tolerance) were prominent.

Physical activity level measured by doubly labeled water and accelerometry in children.

The present study investigated the use of a tri-axial accelerometer, Tracmor2, for the measurement of physical activity in children. Eleven children [age 6.9 (2.2) years, body mass 19.5 (5.3) kg and height 112.3 (14.4) cm] were studied. Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) was measured using the doubly labeled water method over a 2-week period. In addition, basal metabolic rate (BMR) was determined by the ventilated hood system. Physical activity level (PAL) was defined as TDEE/BMR. Tracmor2 was worn during the same 2-week period throughout waking hours after which average counts per day were calculated. The average counts per day were shown to be highly correlated to PAL values measured by doubly labeled water: PAL = 1.156 x 10(-5) x Tracmor2 average counts day(-1) + 0.978 (r=0.79, P<0.01). In conclusion, Tracmor2 is a valid instrument to measure physical activity in children under free-living conditions.