Patulin alters alpha-adrenergic receptor signalling and induces epigenetic modifications in the kidneys of C57BL/6 mice.

Patulin (PAT) is a food-borne mycotoxin produced by Penicillium and Byssochlamys species. It is widely known for its mutagenic, carcinogenic, and genotoxic effects and has been associated with kidney injury; however, the mechanism of toxicity remains unclear. To address this gap, we conducted a study to explore the changes in α-adrenergic receptor signalling pathways and epigenetic modifications induced by PAT in the kidneys of C57BL/6 mice during acute (1 day) and prolonged (10 days) exposure. The mice (20-22 g) were orally administered PAT (2.5 mg/kg; at 1 and 10 days), and post-treatment, the kidneys were harvested, homogenised and extracted for RNA, DNA, and protein. The relative gene expression of the α-adrenergic receptors (ADRA1, ADRA2A, ADRA2B) and associated signalling pathways (MAPK, MAPK14, ERK, PI3K, and AKT) was assessed by qPCR. The protein expression of ERK1/2 and MAPK was determined by western blot. The impact of PAT on DNA methylation was evaluated by quantifying global DNA methylation; qPCR was used to determine gene expression levels of DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) and demethylase (MBD2). PAT downregulated the expression of ADRA1, ADRA2A, ADRA2B, PI3K, and AKT and upregulated ERK1/2 and MAPK protein expression. Furthermore, PAT induced alterations in DNA methylation patterns by upregulating DNMT1 and MBD2 expressions and downregulating DNMT3A and DNMT3B expressions, resulting in global DNA hypomethylation. In conclusion, PAT disrupts α-1 and α-2 adrenergic receptor signalling pathways and induces epigenetic modifications, that can lead to kidney injury.

Antiretrovirals Promote Insulin Resistance in HepG2 Liver Cells through miRNA Regulation and Transcriptional Activation of the NLRP3 Inflammasome.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a non-communicable disease characterized by a cluster of metabolic irregularities. Alarmingly, the prevalence of MetS in people living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and antiretroviral (ARV) usage is increasing rapidly. Insulin resistance is a common characteristic of MetS that leads to the development of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The progression of insulin resistance is strongly linked to inflammasome activation. This study aimed to draw links between the combinational use of Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), Lamivudine (3TC), and Dolutegravir (DTG), and inflammasome activation and subsequent promotion of insulin resistance following a 120 h treatment period in HepG2 liver in vitro cell model. Furthermore, we assess microRNA (miR-128a) expression as a negative regulator of the IRS1/AKT signaling pathway. The relative expression of phosphorylated IRS1 was determined by Western blot. Transcript levels of NLRP3, IL-1ß, JNK, IRS1, AKT, PI3K, and miR-128a were assessed using quantitative PCR (qPCR). Caspase-1 activity was measured using luminometry. Following exposure to ARVs for 120 h, NLRP3 mRNA expression (p = 0.0500) and caspase-1 activity (p < 0.0001) significantly increased. This was followed by a significant elevation in IL-1ß in mRNA expression (p = 0.0015). Additionally, JNK expression (p = 0.0093) was upregulated with coinciding increases in p-IRS1 protein expression (p < 0.0001) and decreased IRS1 mRNA expression (p = 0.0004). Consequently, decreased AKT (p = 0.0005) and PI3K expressions (p = 0.0007) were observed. Interestingly miR-128a expression was significantly upregulated. The results indicate that combinational use of ARVs upregulates inflammasome activation and promotes insulin resistance through dysregulation of the IRS1/PI3K/AKT insulin signaling pathway.

The effect of ARVs on the MEKKK1 gene promoter, inflammatory cytokine expression and signalling in acute treated Jurkat T cells.

ARVs alter the methylation status of the MEKKK1 gene promoter in acute treated Jurkat T cells with inflammatory outcomesInflammation is reduced in patients under going antiretroviral therapy; however the mechanism is not well understood. We investigated DNA methylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase kinase 1 (MEKKK1) gene promoter in Jurkat T cells to determine whether the antiretroviral drugs, lamivudine, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, dolutegravir, TLD (a combination of TDF, 3TC and DTG) and efavirenz modify the methylation status of the MEKKK1 gene - a known stimulus of inflammation.Acute antiretroviral treatments (24 h) were not cytotoxic to Jurkat T cells. MEKKK1 promoter hypomethylation occurred in cells treated with 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (Aza), TDF and 3TC, and MEKKK1 promoter hypermethylation occurred in cells treated with DTG; however, promoter DNA methylation of the MEKKK1 gene did not influence MEKKK1 gene expression; therefore, these drugs did not epigenetically regulate MEKKK1 and downstream signalling by promoter DNA methylation. Acute TLD and EFV treatments induced inflammation in Jurkat T cells by increasing MEKKK1, MAPK/ERK and NFκB expression, and activating tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) expression. ARVs decreased IL-10 gene expression, showing no anti-inflammatory activity.The data shows that the inflammation caused by ARVs is not related to the methylation status of MEKKK1 gene promoter and suggests an alternative stimulus via post-transcriptional/post-translational modifications may activate the canonical MEKKK1/NFκB pathway that leads to inflammation. Finally, an increase in NFκB activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine activation seemed to occur via the MAPK/ERK pathway following ARV treatments in Jurkat T cells.

Malnutrition and Dietary Habits Alter the Immune System Which May Consequently Influence SARS-CoV-2 Virulence: A Review.

COVID-19, resulting from the SARS-CoV-2 virus, is a major pandemic that the world is fighting. SARS-CoV-2 primarily causes lung infection by attaching to the ACE2 receptor on the alveolar epithelial cells. However, the ACE2 receptor is also present in intestinal epithelial cells, suggesting a link between nutrition, virulence and clinical outcomes of COVID-19. Respiratory viral infections perturb the gut microbiota. The gut microbiota is shaped by our diet; therefore, a healthy gut is important for optimal metabolism, immunology and protection of the host. Malnutrition causes diverse changes in the immune system by repressing immune responses and enhancing viral vulnerability. Thus, improving gut health with a high-quality, nutrient-filled diet will improve immunity against infections and diseases. This review emphasizes the significance of dietary choices and its subsequent effects on the immune system, which may potentially impact SARS-CoV-2 vulnerability.

A Review: Highlighting the Links between Epigenetics, COVID-19 Infection, and Vitamin D.

The highly transmittable and infectious COVID-19 remains a major threat worldwide, with the elderly and comorbid individuals being the most vulnerable. While vaccines are currently available, therapeutic drugs will help ease the viral outbreak and prevent serious health outcomes. Epigenetic modifications regulate gene expression through changes in chromatin structure and have been linked to viral pathophysiology. Since epigenetic modifications contribute to the life cycle of the virus and host immune responses to infection, epigenetic drugs are promising treatment targets to ameliorate COVID-19. Deficiency of the multifunctional secosteroid hormone vitamin D is a global health threat. Vitamin D and its receptor function to regulate genes involved in immunity, apoptosis, proliferation, differentiation, and inflammation. Amassed evidence also indicates the biological relations of vitamin D with reduced disease risk, while its receptor can be modulated by epigenetic mechanisms. The immunomodulatory effects of vitamin D suggest a role for vitamin D as a COVID-19 therapeutic agent. Therefore, this review highlights the epigenetic effects on COVID-19 and vitamin D while also proposing a role for vitamin D in COVID-19 infections.

Molecular and epigenetic modes of Fumonisin B1 mediated toxicity and carcinogenesis and detoxification strategies.

Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a natural contaminant of agricultural commodities that has displayed a myriad of toxicities in animals. Moreover, it is known to be a hepatorenal carcinogen in rodents and may be associated with oesophageal and hepatocellular carcinomas in humans. The most well elucidated mode of FB1-mediated toxicity is its disruption of sphingolipid metabolism; however, enhanced oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy, and alterations in immune response may also play a role in its toxicity and carcinogenicity. Alterations to the host epigenome may impact on the toxic and carcinogenic response to FB1. Seeing that the contamination of FB1 in food poses a considerable risk to human and animal health, a great deal of research has focused on new methods to prevent and attenuate FB1-induced toxic consequences. The focus of the present review is on the molecular and epigenetic interactions of FB1 as well as recent research involving FB1 detoxification.

Fumonisin B1 alters global m6A RNA methylation and epigenetically regulates Keap1-Nrf2 signaling in human hepatoma (HepG2) cells.

FB1 is a common contaminant of cereal grains that affects human and animal health. It has become increasingly evident that epigenetic changes are implicated in FB1 toxicity. N6-methyladenosine (m6A), the most abundant post-transcriptional RNA modification, is influenced by fluctuations in redox status. Since oxidative stress is a characteristic of FB1 exposure, we determined if there is cross-talk between oxidative stress and m6A in FB1-exposed HepG2 cells. Briefly, HepG2 cells were treated with FB1 (0, 5, 50, 100, 200 µM; 24 h) and ROS, LDH and m6A levels were quantified. qPCR was used to determine the expression of m6A modulators, Nrf2, Keap1 and miR-27b, while western blotting was used to quantify Keap1 and Nrf2 protein expression. Methylation status of Keap1 and Nrf2 promoters was assessed and RNA immunoprecipitation quantified m6A-Keap1 and m6A-Nrf2 levels. FB1 induced accumulation of intracellular ROS (p ≤ 0.001) and LDH leakage (p ≤ 0.001). Elevated m6A levels (p ≤ 0.05) were accompanied by an increase in m6A "writers" [METLL3 (p ≤ 0.01) and METLL14 (p ≤ 0.01)], and "readers" [YTHDF1 (p ≤ 0.01), YTHDF2 (p ≤ 0.01), YTHDF3 (p ≤ 0.001) and YTHDC2 (p ≤ 0.01)] and a decrease in m6A "erasers" [ALKBH5 (p ≤ 0.001) and FTO (p ≤ 0.001)]. Hypermethylation and hypomethylation occurred at Keap1 (p ≤ 0.001) and Nrf2 (p ≤ 0.001) promoters, respectively. MiR-27b was reduced (p ≤ 0.001); however, m6A-Keap1 (p ≤ 0.05) and m6A-Nrf2 (p ≤ 0.01) levels were upregulated. This resulted in the ultimate decrease in Keap1 (p ≤ 0.001) and increase in Nrf2 (p ≤ 0.001) expression. Our findings reveal that m6A RNA methylation can be modified by exposure to FB1, and a cross-talk between m6A and redox regulators does occur.

A Critical Review of the Biochemical Mechanisms and Epigenetic Modifications in HIV- and Antiretroviral-Induced Metabolic Syndrome.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a non-communicable disease characterised by a cluster of metabolic irregularities. Alarmingly, the prevalence of MetS in people living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and antiretroviral (ARV) usage is increasing rapidly. This study aimed to look at biochemical mechanisms and epigenetic modifications associated with HIV, ARVs, and MetS. More specifically, emphasis was placed on mitochondrial dysfunction, insulin resistance, inflammation, lipodystrophy, and dyslipidaemia. We found that mitochondrial dysfunction was the most common mechanism that induced metabolic complications. Our findings suggest that protease inhibitors (PIs) are more commonly implicated in MetS-related effects than other classes of ARVs. Furthermore, we highlight epigenetic studies linking HIV and ARV usage to MetS and stress the need for more studies, as the current literature remains limited despite the advancement in and popularity of epigenetics.

The Effect of Organoselenium Compounds on Histone Deacetylase Inhibition and Their Potential for Cancer Therapy.

Genetic and epigenetic changes alter gene expression, contributing to cancer. Epigenetic changes in cancer arise from alterations in DNA and histone modifications that lead to tumour suppressor gene silencing and the activation of oncogenes. The acetylation status of histones and non-histone proteins are determined by the histone deacetylases and histone acetyltransferases that control gene transcription. Organoselenium compounds have become promising contenders in cancer therapeutics. Apart from their anti-oxidative effects, several natural and synthetic organoselenium compounds and metabolites act as histone deacetylase inhibitors, which influence the acetylation status of histones and non-histone proteins, altering gene transcription. This review aims to summarise the effect of natural and synthetic organoselenium compounds on histone and non-histone protein acetylation/deacetylation in cancer therapy.

MiR-146a G/C rs2910164 variation in South African Indian and Caucasian patients with psoriatic arthritis.

BACKGROUND: Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis (PsA) are inflammatory associated autoimmune disorders. MicroRNA (miR)-146a plays a crucial role in regulating inflammation. A single nucleotide polymorphism in the miR-146a gene (rs2910164), aberrantly alters its gene expression and linked with the pathogenesis of several disorders, including psoriasis and PsA. In South Africa, psoriasis and PsA are extremely rare in the indigenous African population and most common in both the Indian and Caucasian population. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the miR-146a rs2910164 contributes towards psoriasis and PsA development in South African Indian and Caucasian patients. METHODS: South African Indian (n = 84) and Caucasian (n = 32) PsA patients (total n = 116) and healthy control subjects (Indian: n = 62 and Caucasian: n = 38; total n = 100) were recruited in the study. DNA was extracted from whole blood taken from all subjects, and genotyped for the miR-146a rs2910164 using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). Data for laboratory parameters were obtained from pathology reports. The consulting rheumatologist collected all other clinical data. RESULTS: Unstratified data (Caucasians + Indians): A significant decrease in C-reactive protein (CRP) levels in PsA patients was observed (CRP monitored at inclusion vs. after 6 months of treatment) (18.95 ± 2.81 mg/L vs. 9.68 ± 1.32 mg/L, p = 0.0011). The miR-146a rs2910164 variant C-allele frequency in PsA patients was significantly higher vs. healthy controls (35.78% vs. 26% respectively, p = 0.0295, OR = 1.59 95% CI 1.05-2.40). Stratified data (Indians): The variant C-allele frequency in Indian PsA patients was significantly higher vs. healthy Indian controls (35.71% vs. 22.58%, p = 0.0200, OR = 1.91 95% CI 1.13-3.22). Stratified data (Caucasians): The variant C-allele frequency distribution between Caucasian PsA patients and healthy Caucasian controls was similar. CONCLUSION: The rs2910164 variant C-allele may play a role in the progression of PsA in the South African Indian population. The main limitation in this study was the small sample size in the case-control cohorts, with a low overall statistical power (post-hoc power analysis = 19%).

Fusaric Acid Induces DNA Damage and Post-Translational Modifications of p53 in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HepG2 ) Cells.

Fusaric acid (FA), a common fungal contaminant of maize, is known to mediate toxicity in plants and animals; however, its mechanism of action is unclear. p53 is a tumor suppressor protein that is activated in response to cellular stress. The function of p53 is regulated by post-translational modifications-ubiquitination, phosphorylation, and acetylation. This study investigated a possible mechanism of FA induced toxicity in the human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2 ) cell line. The effect of FA on DNA integrity and post-translational modifications of p53 were investigated. Methods included: (a) culture and treatment of HepG2 cells with FA (IC50 : 580.32 µM, 24 h); (b) comet assay (DNA damage); (c) Western blots (protein expression of p53, MDM2, p-Ser-15-p53, a-K382-p53, a-CBP (K1535)/p300 (K1499), HDAC1 and p-Ser-47-Sirt1); and (d) Hoechst 33342 assay (apoptosis analysis). FA caused DNA damage in HepG2 cells relative to the control (P < 0.0001). FA decreased the protein expression of p53 (0.24-fold, P = 0.0004) and increased the expression of p-Ser-15-p53 (12.74-fold, P = 0.0126) and a-K382-p53 (2.24-fold, P = 0.0096). This occurred despite the significant decrease in the histone acetyltransferase, a-CBP (K1535)/p300 (K1499) (0.42-fold, P = 0.0023) and increase in the histone deacetylase, p-Ser-47-Sirt1 (1.22-fold, P = 0.0020). The expression of MDM2, a negative regulator of p53, was elevated in the FA treatment compared to the control (1.83-fold, P < 0.0001). FA also inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells as evidenced by the Hoechst assay. Together, these results indicate that FA is genotoxic and post-translationally modified p53 leading to HepG2 cell death. J. Cell. Biochem. 118: 3866-3874, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Retinoic acid in Parkinson's disease: Molecular insights, therapeutic advances, and future prospects.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common and progressively worsening neurodegenerative disorder characterized by abnormal protein homeostasis and the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, particularly in the substantia nigra pars compacta. The prevalence of PD has doubled in the past 25 years, now affecting over 8.5 million individuals worldwide, underscoring the need for effective management strategies. While current pharmacological therapies provide symptom relief, they face challenges in treating advanced PD stages. Recent research highlights the therapeutic benefits of retinoic acid (RA) in PD, demonstrating its potential to mitigate neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, regulate brain aging, promote neuronal plasticity, and influence circadian rhythm gene expression and retinoid X receptor heterodimerization. Additionally, RA helps maintain intestinal homeostasis and modulates the enteric nervous system, presenting significant therapeutic potential for managing PD. This review explores RA as a promising alternative to conventional therapies by summarizing the molecular mechanisms underlying its role in PD pathophysiology and presenting up-to-date insights into both preclinical and clinical studies of RA in PD treatment. It also delves into cutting-edge formulations incorporating RA, highlighting ongoing efforts to refine therapeutic strategies by integrating RA into novel treatments. This comprehensive overview aims to advance progress in the field, contribute to the development of effective, targeted treatments for PD, and enhance patient well-being. Further research is essential to fully explore RA's therapeutic potential and validate its efficacy in PD treatment.

Antiretrovirals Promote Metabolic Syndrome through Mitochondrial Stress and Dysfunction: An In Vitro Study.

The prevalence of metabolic syndrome MetS in HIV-infected patients on chronic antiretroviral (ARV) therapy continues to rise rapidly, with an estimated 21% experiencing insulin resistance. The progression of insulin resistance is strongly related to mitochondrial stress and dysfunction. This study aimed to draw links between the singular and combinational use of Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), Lamivudine (3TC), and Dolutegravir (DTG) on mitochondrial stress and dysfunction as an underlying mechanism for insulin resistance following a 120 h treatment period using an in vitro system of human liver cells (HepG2). The relative protein expressions of pNrf2, SOD2, CAT, PINK1, p62, SIRT3, and UCP2, were determined using Western blot. Transcript levels of PINK1 and p62 were assessed using quantitative PCR (qPCR). ATP concentrations were quantified using luminometry, and oxidative damage (malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration) was measured using spectrophotometry. The findings suggest that despite the activation of antioxidant responses (pNrf2, SOD2, CAT) and mitochondrial maintenance systems (PINK1 and p62) in selected singular and combinational treatments with ARVs, oxidative damage and reduced ATP production persisted. This was attributed to a significant suppression in mitochondrial stress responses SIRT3 and UCP2 for all treatments. Notable results were observed for combinational treatments with significant increases in pNrf2 (p = 0.0090), SOD2 (p = 0.0005), CAT (p = 0.0002), PINK1 (p = 0.0064), and p62 (p = 0.0228); followed by significant decreases in SIRT3 (p = 0.0003) and UCP2 (p = 0.0119) protein expression. Overall there were elevated levels of MDA (p = 0.0066) and decreased ATP production (p = 0.0017). In conclusion, ARVs induce mitochondrial stress and dysfunction, which may be closely associated with the progression of insulin resistance.

Moringa oleifera Lam Leaf Extract Stimulates NRF2 and Attenuates ARV-Induced Toxicity in Human Liver Cells (HepG2).

The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that there are 37 million individuals living with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) worldwide, with the majority in South Africa. This chronic disease is managed by the effective use of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs. However, with prolonged use, ARV drug-induced toxicity remains a clinically complex problem. This study investigated the toxicity of ARV drugs on mitochondria and the NRF2 antioxidant pathway and its possible amelioration using Moringa oleifera Lam (MO) leaf extracts. This medicinal plant has a range of functional bioactive compounds. Liver (HepG2) cells were treated with individual ARV drugs: Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), Emtricitabine (FTC), and Lamivudine (3TC) for 96 h, followed by MO leaf extracts for 24 h. Intracellular ROS, cytotoxicity, lipid peroxidation, total and reduced glutathione (GSH), ATP, and mitochondrial polarisation were determined. Finally, protein (pNRF2, NRF2, SOD2, CAT, and Sirt3) and mRNA (NRF2, CAT, NQO1 SOD2, Sirt3, and PGC1α) expression were measured using Western blot and qPCR, respectively. TDF, FTC, and 3TC significantly increased intracellular ROS and extracellular levels of both MDA and LDH. ARVs also reduced the GSH and ATP levels and altered the mitochondrial polarization. Further, ARVs reduced the expression of NRF2 SOD2, Sirt3, CAT, NQO1, UCP2 and PGC1α mRNA and consequently pNRF2, NRF2, SOD2, Sirt3 and CAT protein. In contrast, there was a significant reduction in the extracellular MDA and LDH levels post-MO treatment. MO significantly reduced intracellular ROS while significantly increasing GSH, ATP, and mitochondrial membrane polarization. The addition of MO to ARV-treated cells significantly upregulated the expression of NRF2, SOD2, Sirt3, CAT, UCP2, PGC1α, and NQO1 mRNA and pNRF2, NRF2, SOD2, Sirt3 proteins. Thus, MO ameliorates ARV-induced hepatotoxicity by scavenging oxidants by inducing the NRF2 antioxidant pathway. MO shows great therapeutic potential and may be considered a potential supplement to ameliorate ARV drug toxicity.

Kojic acid induces oxidative stress and anti-inflammatory effects in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells.

The cosmetic industry makes extensive use of kojic acid (KA); however, the toxicity of KA in humans is not well known. By monitoring oxidative stress, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signalling in human hepatoma (HepG2) cells after a 24 h exposure, this study aimed to identify the toxicity of KA. KA toxicity [4.22, 8.02 and 12.67 mM] was assessed using mitochondrial output, antioxidant responses, macromolecule damage, MAPK signalling, inflammation, and cell death markers, using spectrophotometry, luminometry, Western blot and qPCR. Apoptosis was confirmed by reduced cell viability and increased caspases -9 (p < 0.0001), -8 (p = 0.0003), and -3/7 (p < 0.0001) activities at 4.22 mM and 8.02 mM. LDH leakage was present at 12.67 mM, providing significant evidence of necrosis. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels significantly increased at 4.22 mM (p < 0.0001). There was an increase of phosphorylated nuclear factor erythroid-2 factor-2 (p-Nrf2) at 4.22 mM and 8.02 mM, whilst at 12.67 mM decreased p-Nrf2 (p < 0.0001) was observed. KA increased p38 expression (p = 0.0011). The findings point to significant suppression of the NFκB inflammatory pathway at 8.02 mM (p < 0.0001). This study showed that KA initiated MAPK signalling due to oxidative stress and suppressed inflammation. HepG2 cells showed minimal toxicity to KA.

A comprehensive review on the global efforts on vaccines and repurposed drugs for combating COVID-19.

The recently discovered coronavirus, known as SARS-CoV-2, is a highly contagious and potentially lethal viral infection that was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11, 2020. Since the beginning of the pandemic, an unprecedented number of COVID-19 vaccine candidates have been investigated for their potential to manage the pandemic. Herein, we reviewed vaccine development and the associated research effort, both traditional and forward-looking, to demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages of their technology, in addition to their efficacy limitations against mutant SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, we report repurposed drug discovery, which mainly focuses on virus-based and host-based targets, as well as their inhibitors. SARS-CoV-2 targets include the main protease (Mpro), and RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase (RdRp), which are the most well-studied and conserved across coronaviruses, enabling the development of broad-spectrum inhibitors of these enzymes.

The Potential of Spirulina platensis to Ameliorate the Adverse Effects of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART).

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one of the most prevalent diseases globally. It is estimated that 37.7 million people are infected with HIV globally, and 8.2 million persons are infected with the virus in South Africa. The highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) involves combining various types of antiretroviral drugs that are dependent on the infected person's viral load. HAART helps regulate the viral load and prevents its associated symptoms from progressing into acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Despite its success in prolonging HIV-infected patients' lifespans, the use of HAART promotes metabolic syndrome (MetS) through an inflammatory pathway, excess production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and mitochondrial dysfunction. Interestingly, Spirulina platensis (SP), a blue-green microalgae commonly used as a traditional food by Mexican and African people, has been demonstrated to mitigate MetS by regulating oxidative and inflammatory pathways. SP is also a potent antioxidant that has been shown to exhibit immunological, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. This review is aimed at highlighting the biochemical mechanism of SP with a focus on studies linking SP to the inhibition of HIV, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Further, we propose SP as a potential supplement for HIV-infected persons on lifelong HAART.

Fusaric acid induces hepatic global m6A RNA methylation and differential expression of m6A regulatory genes in vivo - a pilot study.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is an abundant epitranscriptomic mark that regulates gene expression to execute cellular developmental programmes and environmental adaptation. Fusaric acid (FA) is a mycotoxin that contaminates agricultural foods and exerts toxicity in humans and animals; however, its epitranscriptomic effects are unclear. We investigated the effect of FA on global m6A RNA methylation and mRNA expression levels of key m6A regulatory genes in C57BL/6 mouse livers. C57BL/6 mice (n = 6/group) were orally administered 0.1 M phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) or 50 mg/kg FA. Mice were euthanized 24 h after oral administration, livers were harvested, and RNA was isolated. RNA samples were assayed for global m6A levels using an m6A RNA Methylation Quantification Kit. The mRNA expression of m6A regulators i.e. writers, erasers, and readers were measured by qRT-PCR. FA increased global m6A RNA methylation (p < 0.0001) in mouse livers. FA increased the expression of METTL3 (p = 0.0143) and METTL14 (p = 0.0281), and decreased the expression of FTO (p = 0.0036) and ALKBH5 (p = 0.0035). The expression of YTHDF2 (p = 0.0007), YTHDF3 (p = 0.0061), and YTHDC2 (p = 0.0258) were increased by FA in mouse livers. This study shows that the liver m6A epitranscriptome can be modified by FA exposure in an in vivo model and can be useful for identifying the molecular mechanisms whereby m6A RNA modifications influence the toxicological outcomes of FA exposure.

The Potential of Moringa oleifera to Ameliorate HAART-Induced Pathophysiological Complications.

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) comprises a combination of two or three antiretroviral (ARV) drugs that are administered together in a single tablet. These drugs target different steps within the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) life cycle, providing either a synergistic or additive antiviral effect; this enhances the efficiency in which viral replication is suppressed. HIV cannot be completely eliminated, making HAART a lifetime treatment. With long-term HAART usage, an increasing number of patients experience a broadening array of complications, and this significantly affects their quality of life, despite cautious use. The mechanism through which ARV drugs induce toxicity is associated with metabolic complications such as mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and inflammation. To address this, it is necessary to improve ARV drug formulation without compromising its efficacy; alternatively, safe supplementary medicine may be a suitable solution. The medicinal plant Moringa oleifera (MO) is considered one of the most important sources of novel nutritionally and pharmacologically active compounds that have been shown to prevent and treat various diseases. MO leaves are rich in polyphenols, vitamins, minerals, and tannins; studies have confirmed the therapeutic properties of MO. MO leaves provide powerful antioxidants, scavenge free radicals, promote carbohydrate metabolism, and repair DNA. MO also induces anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-proliferative, and anti-mutagenic effects. Therefore, MO can be a source of affordable and safe supplement therapy for HAART-induced toxicity. This review highlights the potential of MO leaves to protect against HAART-induced toxicity in HIV patients.

Spirulina platensis Mitigates the Inhibition of Selected miRNAs that Promote Inflammation in HAART-Treated HepG2 Cells.

The introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the treatment of HIV/AIDS has recently gained popularity. In addition, the significant role of microRNA expression in HIV pathogenesis cannot be overlooked; hence the need to explore the mechanisms of microRNA expression in the presence of HAART and Spirulina platensis (SP) in HepG2 cells. This study investigates the biochemical mechanisms of microRNA expression in HepG2 cells in the presence of HAART, SP, and the potential synergistic effect of HAART−SP. A 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was used to determine cell viability following SP treatment. The cellular redox status was assessed using the quantification of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and a lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay. The fluorometric JC-1 assay was used to determine mitochondrial polarisation. The quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was also employed for micro-RNA and gene expressions. The results show that MiR-146a (p < 0.0001) and miR-155 (p < 0.0001) levels increased in SP-treated cells. However, only miR-146a (p < 0.0001) in HAART−SP indicated an increase, while miR-155 (p < 0.0001) in HAART−SP treatment indicated a significant decreased expression. Further inflammation analysis revealed that Cox-1 mRNA expression was reduced in SP-treated cells (p = 0.4129). However, Cox-1 expression was significantly increased in HAART−SP-treated cells (p < 0.0001). The investigation revealed that HepG2 cells exposed to HAART−SP treatment showed a significant decrease in Cox-2 (p < 0.0001) expression. mRNA expression also decreased in SP-treated cells (p < 0.0001); therefore, SP potentially controls inflammation by regulating microRNA expressions. Moreover, the positive synergistic effect is indicated by normalised intracellular ROS levels (p < 0.0001) in the HAART−SP treatment. We hereby recommend further investigation on the synergistic roles of SP and HAART in the expression of microRNA with more focus on inflammatory and oxidative pathways.