Erratum: Lessons from sexual and reproductive health voucher program design and function: a comprehensive review.

In the final version of our article entitled, "Lessons from sexual and reproductive health voucher program design and function: a comprehensive review" the authors inadvertently failed to acknowledge the role of International Union of Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP). IUSSP colleagues kindly reviewed early drafts of the manuscript presented at an IUSSP workshop in Bangkok August 2012 and had specifically requested that we recognize their feedback. We therefore feel obliged to acknowledge IUSSP.

Lessons from sexual and reproductive health voucher program design and function: a comprehensive review.

BACKGROUND: Developing countries face challenges in financing healthcare; often the poor do not receive the most basic services. The past decade has seen a sharp increase in the number of voucher programs, which target output-based subsidies for specific services to poor and underserved groups. The dearth of literature that examines lessons learned risks the wheel being endlessly reinvented. This paper examines commonalities and differences in voucher design and implementation, highlighting lessons learned for the design of new voucher programmes. METHODOLOGY: The methodology comprised: discussion among key experts to develop inclusion/exclusion criteria; up-dating the literature database used by the DFID systematic review of voucher programs; and networking with key contacts to identify new programs and obtain additional program documents. We identified 40 programs for review and extracted a dataset of more than 120 program characteristics for detailed analysis. RESULTS: All programs aimed to increase utilisation of healthcare, particularly maternal health services, overwhelmingly among low-income populations. The majority contract(ed) private providers, or public and private providers, and all facilitate(d) access to services that are well defined, time-limited and reflect the country's stated health priorities. All voucher programs incorporate a governing body, management agency, contracted providers and target population, and all share the same incentive structure: the transfer of subsidies from consumers to service providers, resulting in a strong effect on both consumer and provider behaviour. Vouchers deliver subsidies to individuals, who in the absence of the subsidy would likely not have sought care, and in all programs a positive behavioural response is observed, with providers investing voucher revenue to attract more clients. A large majority of programs studied used targeting mechanisms. CONCLUSIONS: While many programs remain too small to address national-level need among the poor, large programs are being developed at a rate of one every two years, with further programs in the pipeline. The importance of addressing inequalities in access to basic services is recognized as an important component in the drive to achieve universal health coverage; vouchers are increasingly acknowledged as a promising targeting mechanism in this context, particularly where social health insurance is not yet feasible.

Community embedded reproductive health interventions for adolescents in Latin America: development and evaluation of a complex multi-centre intervention.

BACKGROUND: Adolescents in Latin America are at high risk for unwanted and unplanned pregnancies, which often result in unsafe abortions or poor maternal health outcomes. Both young men and women in the region face an increased risk of sexually transmitted infections due to inadequate sexual and reproductive health information, services and counselling. To date, many adolescent health programmes have targeted a single determinant of sexual and reproductive health. However, recent evidence suggests that the complexity of sexual and reproductive health issues demands an equally multi-layered and comprehensive approach. METHODS: This article describes the development, implementation and evaluation design of the community-embedded reproductive health care for adolescents (CERCA) study in three Latin American cities: Cochabamba (Bolivia), Cuenca (Ecuador) and Managua (Nicaragua). Project CERCA's research methodology builds on existing methodological frameworks, namely: action research, community based participatory research and intervention-mapping.The interventions in each country address distinct target groups (adolescents, parents, local authorities and health providers) and seek improvement of the following sexual health behaviours: communication about sexuality, sexual and reproductive health information-seeking, access to sexual and reproductive health care and safe sexual relationships.In Managua, we implemented a randomised controlled study, and in Cochabamba and Cuenca we adopted a non-randomised controlled study to evaluate the effectiveness of Project CERCA interventions, in addition to a process evaluation. DISCUSSION: This research will result in a methodological framework that will contribute to the improved design and implementation of future adolescent sexual and reproductive health interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT01722084).

A taxonomy and results from a comprehensive review of 28 maternal health voucher programmes.

It is increasingly clear that Millennium Development Goal 4 and 5 will not be achieved in many low- and middle-income countries with the weakest gains among the poor. Recognizing that there are large inequalities in reproductive health outcomes, the post-2015 agenda on universal health coverage will likely generate strategies that target resources where maternal and newborn deaths are the highest. In 2012, the United States Agency for International Development convened an Evidence Summit to review the knowledge and gaps on the utilization of financial incentives to enhance the quality and uptake of maternal healthcare. The goal was to provide donors and governments of the low- and middle-income countries with evidence-informed recommendations on practice, policy, and strategies regarding the use of financial incentives, including vouchers, to enhance the demand and supply of maternal health services. The findings in this paper are intended to guide governments interested in maternal health voucher programmes with recommendations for sustainable implementation and impact. The Evidence Summit undertook a systematic review of five financing strategies. This paper presents the methods and findings for vouchers, building on a taxonomy to catalogue knowledge about voucher programme design and functionality. More than 120 characteristics under five major categories were identified: programme principles (objectives and financing); governance and management; benefits package and beneficiary targeting; providers (contracting and service pricing); and implementation arrangements (marketing, claims processing, and monitoring and evaluation). Among the 28 identified maternal health voucher programmes, common characteristics included: a stated objective to increase the use of services among the means-tested poor; contracted-out programme management; contracting either exclusively private facilities or a mix of public and private providers; prioritizing community-based distribution of vouchers; and tracking individual claims for performance purposes. Maternal voucher programmes differed on whether contracted providers were given training on clinical or administrative issues; whether some form of service verification was undertaken at facility or community-level; and the relative size of programme management costs in the overall programme budget. Evidence suggests voucher programmes can serve populations with national-level impact. Reaching scale depends on whether the voucher programme can: (i) keep management costs low, (ii) induce a large demand-side response among the bottom two quintiles, and (iii) achieve a quality of care that translates a greater number of facility-based deliveries into a reduction in maternal morbidity and mortality.

Lessons for management of sexually transmitted infection treatment programs as part of HIV/AIDS prevention strategies.

We analyzed the treatment schedule of a long-running HIV/AIDS prevention program in Managua, Nicaragua, that targets sex workers through mass and specific clinic-based treatment of sexually transmitted infections and confirmed the role of frequency of treatment in generating a sustained reduction in measured prevalence of sexually transmitted infections. Unplanned variations in the time between treatments, a situation common to public health programs, provided the basis for attributing changes in measured levels of sexually transmitted infections to the program and for testing the statistical significance of the relationship. This information is critical to program design and funding and to resource allocation.

Does a competitive voucher program for adolescents improve the quality of reproductive health care? A simulated patient study in Nicaragua.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about how sexual and reproductive (SRH) health can be made accessible and appropriate to adolescents. This study evaluates the impact and sustainability of a competitive voucher program on the quality of SRH care for poor and underserved female adolescents and the usefulness of the simulated patient (SP) method for such evaluation. METHODS: 28,711 vouchers were distributed to adolescents in disadvantaged areas of Managua that gave free-of-charge access to SRH care in 4 public, 10 non-governmental and 5 private clinics. Providers received training and guidelines, treatment protocols, and financial incentives for each adolescent attended. All clinics were visited by female adolescent SPs requesting contraception. SPs were sent one week before, during (with voucher) and one month after the intervention. After each consultation they were interviewed with a standardized questionnaire. Twenty-one criteria were scored and grouped into four categories. Clinics' scores were compared using non-parametric statistical methods (paired design: before-during and before-after). Also the influence of doctors' characteristics was tested using non-parametric statistical methods. RESULTS: Some aspects of service quality improved during the voucher program. Before the program started 8 of the 16 SPs returned 'empty handed', although all were eligible contraceptive users. During the program 16/17 left with a contraceptive method (p = 0.01). Furthermore, more SPs were involved in the contraceptive method choice (13/17 vs.5/16, p = 0.02). Shared decision-making on contraceptive method as well as condom promotion had significantly increased after the program ended. Female doctors had best scores before- during and after the intervention. The improvements were more pronounced among male doctors and doctors older than 40, though these improvements did not sustain after the program ended. CONCLUSION: This study illustrates provider-related obstacles adolescents often face when requesting contraception. The care provided during the voucher program improved for some important outcomes. The improvements were more pronounced among providers with the weakest initial performance. Shared decision-making and condom promotion were improvements that sustained after the program ended. The SP method is suitable and relatively easy to apply in monitoring clinics' performance, yielding important and relevant information. Objective assessment of change through the SP method is much more complex and expensive.

Vouchers in Fragile States: Reducing Barriers to Long-Acting Reversible Contraception in Yemen and Pakistan.

In conflict-affected states, vouchers have reduced barriers to reproductive health services and have enabled health programs to use targeted subsidies to increase uptake of specific health services. Vouchers can also be used to channel funds to public- and private-service providers and improve service quality. The Yamaan Foundation for Health and Social Development in Yemen and the Marie Stopes Society (MSS) in Pakistan-both working with Options Consultancy Services-have developed voucher programs that subsidize voluntary access to long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs) and permanent methods (PMs) of family planning in their respective fragile countries. The programs focus on LARCs and PMs because these methods are particularly difficult for poor women to access due to their cost and to provider biases against offering them. Using estimates of expected voluntary uptake of LARCs and PMs for 2014 based on contraceptive prevalence rates, and comparing these with uptake of LARCs and PMs through the voucher programs, we show the substantial increase in service utilization that vouchers can enable by contributing to an expanded method choice. In the governorate of Lahj, Yemen, vouchers for family planning led to an estimated 38% increase in 2014 over the expected use of LARCs and PMs (720 vs. 521 expected). We applied the same approach in 13 districts of Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), and Sindh provinces in Pakistan. Our calculations suggest that vouchers enabled 10 times more women than expected to choose LARCs and PMs in 2014 in those areas of Pakistan (73,639 vs. 6,455 expected). Voucher programs can promote and maintain access to family planning services where existing health systems are hampered. Vouchers are a flexible financing approach that enable expansion of contraceptive choice and the inclusion of the private sector in service delivery to the poor. They can keep financial resources flowing where the public sector is prevented from offering services, and ensure that alternative sources are available for reproductive health services such as family planning. Programs should consider using vouchers in fragile states to facilitate access to family planning services and support the countries' health systems.

Factorial validation of the Attitudes toward Women Scale for Adolescents (AWSA) in assessing sexual behaviour patterns in Bolivian and Ecuadorian adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Adolescents' health is greatly influenced by social determinants, including gender norms. Although research has shown that there is an association between gender attitudes and adolescents' sexual behaviour, few studies have assessed this relationship carefully. The Attitudes toward Women Scale for Adolescents (AWSA) is widely used to assess gender attitudes among adolescents; however, to our knowledge it has not been applied in Latin America. OBJECTIVE: To apply AWSA in Latin America for the first time, to perform a factorial validation of this scale and to assess the relationship of gender attitudes and sexual behaviour in Bolivian and Ecuadorian adolescents. DESIGN: This cross-sectional study was carried out in 2011 among 14-18 year olds in 20 high schools in Cochabamba (Bolivia) and six in Cuenca (Ecuador) as a part of a larger project. Schools were purposively selected. A Spanish version of the 12-item AWSA was employed for this study. The assessed aspects of adolescent sexual behaviour were: reported sexual intercourse, reported positive experience during last sexual intercourse and reported current use of contraception. The psychometric properties of AWSA were investigated, and both explanatory and confirmatory factorial analyses were performed. RESULTS: The number of questionnaires included in the analysis was 3,518 in Bolivia and 2,401 in Ecuador. A factorial analysis of AWSA resulted in three factors: power dimension (PD), equality dimension (ED) and behavioural dimension (BD). ED showed the highest correlates with adolescent sexual behaviour. Higher scores of this dimension were associated with a more positive experience of sexual relationships, a higher current use of modern contraception and greater sexual activity among girls. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed a three-factorial structure of AWSA and demonstrated that by employing factors, the sensitivity of AWSA increases as compared to using the scale as a whole to assess sexual behaviour. This could have important implications for future research on gender and the sexual experiences of adolescents.

Primary healthcare providers' views on improving sexual and reproductive healthcare for adolescents in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Nicaragua.

OBJECTIVES: To elicit the views of primary healthcare providers from Bolivia, Ecuador, and Nicaragua on how adolescent sexual and reproductive health (ASRH) care in their communities can be improved. METHODS: Overall, 126 healthcare providers (46 from Bolivia, 39 from Ecuador, and 41 from Nicaragua) took part in this qualitative study. During a series of moderated discussions, they provided written opinions about the accessibility and appropriateness of ASRH services and suggestions for its improvement. The data were analyzed by employing a content analysis methodology. RESULTS: Study participants emphasized managerial issues such as the prioritization of adolescents as a patient group and increased healthcare providers' awareness about adolescent-friendly approaches. They noted that such an approach needs to be extended beyond primary healthcare centers. Schools, parents, and the community in general should be encouraged to integrate issues related to ASRH in the everyday life of adolescents and become 'gate-openers' to ASRH services. To ensure the success of such measures, action at the policy level would be required. For example, decision-makers could call for developing clinical guidelines for this population group and coordinate multisectoral efforts. CONCLUSIONS: To improve ASRH services within primary healthcare institutions in three Latin American countries, primary healthcare providers call for focusing on improving the youth-friendliness of health settings. To facilitate this, they suggested engaging with key stakeholders, such as parents, schools, and decision-makers at the policy level.

Perceived quality of reproductive care for girls in a competitive voucher programme. A quasi-experimental intervention study, Managua, Nicaragua.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether female adolescents from low-income areas in Managua were satisfied with the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) care provided through a competitive voucher programme and to analyse the determinants of their satisfaction. DESIGN: A community-based quasi-experimental intervention study from 2000 to 2002. SETTING: Low-income areas of Managua. INTERVENTION: Distribution of 28,711 vouchers giving adolescents free-access to SRH care in 19 clinics; training and support for health care providers. STUDY PARTICIPANTS: A random sample of 3009 girls from 12 to 20 years completed self-administered questionnaires: 700 respondents had used this care in the last 15 months, 221 with voucher (users-with-voucher) and 479 without voucher (users-without-voucher). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: User satisfaction; Satisfaction with clinic reception; Clarity of doctors' explanations. RESULTS: User satisfaction was significantly higher in users-with-voucher compared with users-without-voucher [Adjusted odds-ratio (AOR) = 2.2; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) = 1.2-4.0]. Voucher use was associated with more frequent satisfaction with clinic reception, especially among sexually active girls not yet pregnant or mother (AOR = 6.9; 95% CI = 1.5-31.8). The clarity of doctors' explanations was not perceived differently (AOR = 1.4; 95% CI = 0.9-2.2). User satisfaction was highly correlated to satisfaction with clinic reception and clarity of doctors' explanations (P < 0.001). Longer consultation times, shorter waiting times, older age, and having a female doctor positively influenced user satisfaction. CONCLUSION: Voucher use by teenage girls was associated with a better perceived SRH care. This is an important result, given the crucial role user satisfaction plays in adoption and continued use of health care and contraceptives. Though more research is needed, confidential and guaranteed access appear key factors to voucher success.

Impact of accessible sexual and reproductive health care on poor and underserved adolescents in Managua, Nicaragua: a quasi-experimental intervention study.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to evaluate a competitive voucher program intended to make sexual and reproductive health care (SRHC) accessible to adolescents from disadvantaged areas of Managua. METHODS: A quasi-experimental intervention study was performed in which 28,711 vouchers that gave free access to SRHC in 20 health centers, were distributed to adolescents. To evaluate the impact, community sampling took place in markets, neighborhoods, and outside schools where self-administered questionnaires were distributed. The study comprised a random sample of 3,009 female adolescents, ages 12 to 20 years old, 904 voucher receivers and 2,105 nonreceivers. Their use of SRHC, and knowledge and use of contraceptives and condoms were measured. RESULTS: Voucher receivers had a significantly higher use of SRHC compared with nonreceivers, 34% versus 19% (adjusted odds ratio, 3.1; 95% confidence interval, 2.5-3.8). The highest influence was seen among respondents at schools, where use was 24% relative to 6% in nonreceivers (adjusted odds ratio, 5.9; 95% confidence interval, 3.7-9.5). Voucher receivers answered significantly more questions correctly that were related to knowledge of contraceptives and sexually transmitted infections than nonreceivers. At schools, sexually active voucher receivers had a significantly higher use of modern contraceptives than nonreceivers, 48% versus 33% (adjusted odds ratio, 2.3; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-4.4); and in neighborhoods, condom use during last sexual contact was significantly greater among voucher receivers than nonreceivers (adjusted odds ratio, 2.5; 95% confidence interval, 1.4-4.5). CONCLUSION: The voucher program succeeded in increasing access to SRHC for poor and underserved girls. The needs of adolescents were met with a relatively simple intervention through existing health facilities. Many adolescents appeared willing to protect themselves against the risks of sexual intercourse. This suggest that access to SRHC can play an important role in changing youth behavior and increase the use of contraceptives and condoms.

Can a comprehensive voucher programme prompt changes in doctors' knowledge, attitudes and practices related to sexual and reproductive health care for adolescents? A case study from Latin America.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether participation in a competitive voucher programme designed to improve access to and quality of sexual and reproductive health care (SRH-care), prompted changes in doctors' knowledge, attitudes and practices. METHODS: The voucher programme provided free access to SRH-care for adolescents. Doctors received training and guidelines on how to deal with adolescents, a treatment protocol, and financial incentives for each adolescent attended. To evaluate the impact of the intervention on doctors, nearly all participating doctors (n = 37) were interviewed before the intervention and 23 were interviewed after the intervention. Answers were grouped in subthemes and scores compared using nonparametric methods. RESULTS: The initial interviews disclosed deficiencies in doctors' knowledge, attitudes and practices relating to adolescent SRH-issues. Gender and age of the doctor were not associated with the initial scores. Comparing scores from before and after the intervention revealed significant increases in doctors' knowledge of contraceptives (P = 0.003) and sexually transmittable infections (P < 0.001); barriers to contraceptive use significantly diminished (P < 0.001 and P = 0.003); and some attitudinal changes were observed (0 = 0.046 and P = 0.11). Doctors became more aware of the need to improve their communication skills and were positive about the programme. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed provider related barriers that adolescents in Nicaragua may face and reinforces the importance of focusing on the quality of care and strengthening doctors' training. Participation in the voucher programme resulted in increased knowledge, improved practices and, to a lesser extent, in changed attitudes. A competitive voucher programme with technical support for the participating doctors can be a promising strategy to prompt change.

Uncovering and responding to needs for sexual and reproductive health care among poor urban female adolescents in Nicaragua.

BACKGROUND: To meet the needs of female adolescents from low-income urban areas for sexual and reproductive health (SRH) care, vouchers providing free-of-charge access to SRH care at 19 primary care clinics were distributed in Managua, Nicaragua. These vouchers substantially increased the use of services, demonstrating that many adolescents are willing to use such services, if readily accessible. The voucher redemption made it possible to identify the nature of existing, but largely unmet, needs for SRH care. METHOD: The medical files from 3301 consultations with female adolescents were analysed using descriptive statistical methods and multiple logistic regression. RESULTS: Female adolescents presented SRH problems that merited medical attention. The mean number of problems presented was 1.5 per consultation: 34% of the vouchers were used for contraceptives, 31% for complaints related to sexually transmitted infection (STI) or reproductive tract infection (RTI), 28% for advice/counselling, 28% for antenatal check-up and 18% for pregnancy testing. A new category of health care users emerged: sexually active girls who were neither pregnant nor mothers and who sought contraceptives or STI/RTI treatment. Contraceptive use doubled among the sexually active non-pregnant voucher redeemers. Consultation with a female doctor younger than 36 years was associated with a higher chance of having contraceptives prescribed. CONCLUSION: Accessible and appropriate SRH care has the potential to make an important contribution to the increased contraceptive use, decreased risk of unwanted teenage pregnancies and decreased prevalence of STIs/RTIs among underserved adolescents. Once adolescents access the services, providers have a crucial role in ensuring current and continuing needs are met.

The cost-effectiveness of a competitive voucher scheme to reduce sexually transmitted infections in high-risk groups in Nicaragua.

Current evidence suggests that sexually transmitted infection (STI) interventions can be an effective means of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevention in populations at an early stage of the epidemic. However, evidence as to their cost-effectiveness when targeted at high-risk groups is lacking. This paper assesses the cost-effectiveness of a competitive voucher scheme in Managua, Nicaragua aimed at high-risk groups, who could redeem the vouchers in exchange for free STI testing and treatment, health education and condoms, compared with the status quo (no scheme). A provider perspective was adopted, defined as: the voucher agency and health care providers from the public, NGO and private sectors. The cost of the voucher scheme was estimated for a 1-year period (1999) from project accounts using the ingredients approach. Outcomes were monitored as part of ongoing project evaluation. Costs and outcomes in the absence of the scheme were modelled using project baseline data and reports, and relevant literature. The annual cost of providing comprehensive STI services through vouchers was US$62 495, compared with an estimated US$17 112 for regular service provision in the absence of the scheme. 4815 vouchers were distributed by the voucher scheme, 1543 patients were tested for STIs and 528 STIs were effectively cured in this period. In the absence of the scheme, only an estimated 85 cases would have been cured from 1396 consultations. The average cost of the voucher scheme per patient treated was US$41 and US$118 per STI effectively cured, compared with US$12 per patient treated and US$200 per STI cured in its absence. The incremental cost of curing an STI through the voucher scheme, compared with the status quo, was US$103. A voucher scheme offers an effective and efficient means of targeting and effectively curing STIs in high-risk groups, as well as encouraging quality care practices.

Conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas acerca del SIDA entre estudiantes de escuelas secundarias de Managua / HIV/AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices among Managuan secondary school students

En 1990, se determinaron los conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas acerca del SIDA entre estudiantes del último año (5) de cuatro escuelas secundarias de Managua. Se empleó un cuestionario autoadministrado que fue completado por 451 estudiantes (155 varones y 296 mujeres) cuyo promedio fue 18 años. El 86 por ciento de los sujetos sabía que el SIDA era una enfermedad de transmisión sexual, pero fue mucho menor el porcentaje que conocía otras vías de transmisión y medidas preventivas eficaces. El empleo de condones fue mencionado como medida preventiva por 41 por ciento de los estudiantes, pero el porcentaje entre los varones fue significativamente mayor entre las mujeres (55 por ciento y 33 por ciento respectivamente, P=0,0001). Del total de los encuestados, 64 por ciento (90 por ciento de los varones y 50 por ciento de las mujeres) informaron que habían tenido relaciones sexuales. El 60 por ciento de los entrevistados estaba "muy preocupado" por el SIDA, pero solo el 23 por ciento consideraban que corrían riesgo de contraer la enfermedad. Entre los estudiantes sexualmente activos, 29 por ciento (38 por ciento de los varones y solo 7 por ciento de las mujeres), P=0,001), señalaron que se había modificado su comportamiento sexual a causa del SIDA. La notificación de una modificación de conducta se asoció mucho con la preocupación respecto a la enfermedad, pero fue débil la asociación entre la modificación del comportamiento sexual señalada y la percepción de un riesgo personal. En general, la encuesta indicó que los conocimientos acerca de la transmisión y la prevención del SIDA de los estudiantes de escuelas secundarias de Managua eran insuficientes, en especial entre las mujeres, lo que señala la necesidad de la educación sanitaria, que incluya intervenciones especificamente dirigidas a las jóvenes (AU)

Se publica en inglés en el Bull. PAHO. Vol. 27(4), 1993

Diarrea infantil en la Nicaragua rural: creencias y prácticas de salud tradicionales / Childhood diarrhea in rural Nicaragua: beliefs and traditional health practices

En Nicaragua la causa principal de mortalidad infantil es la diarrea, que causa 40 por ciento de las muertes anuales. Ello refleja el poco uso de los servicios de salud y de la terapia de rehidratación en el municipio Villa Carlos Fonseca. En este informe se describen dos de los estudios, uno etnográfico y el otro epidemiológico, realizados en 1989 y 1990, respectivamente, para conocer las crencias y prácticas de salud tradicionales y su influencia en la forma como las madres responden a la diarrea de sus hijos. En el estudio etnográfico se entrevistó a 70 madres con una media de edad de 28 años e hijos menores de 2 años, que representaban dos grupos, uno de alto riesgo de diarrea y otro de bajo riesgo y las formas de tratamiento en uso. En el estudio epidemiológico participaron 391 madres mayores de 14 años con uno o más hijos menores de 5, de los cuales 216 tuvieron diarrea en las 2 semanas anteriores. Los objetivos fueron describir las creencias y prácticas de salud locales y determinar la incidencia de las diarreas de acuerdo con el diagnóstico que hicieran las madres. Se identificaron por lo menos 12 tipos de diarrea con nombres como "empacho" y "sol de vista". En la mayoría de los casos, las madres confiaban más en los tratamientos folklóricos que aplicaban ellas mismas o las curanderas que en los servicios del centro de salud. Esto limitaba su uso de los servicios y de la TRO, pero se observó que en ciertos casos combinaban los tratamientos tradicionales con los de la medicina occidental. Hubo una correlación directa, pero no significativa, entre el nivel de escolaridad de las madres y la frecuencia con que visitaban el centro de salud. Los autores sugieren estudiar los efectos de los masajes, baños de hiebas y otros tratamientos tradicionales para evaluar y adaptarlos en cuanto sea posible a la medicina "moderna". Los prestadores de servicios de salud deben familiarizarse con la nomenclatura y creencias tradicionales para comunicarse mejor con las madres, y reorientar las prácticas perjudiciales hacia mejores resultados en los programas de prevención de la diarrea infantil

HIV/AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices among Managuan secondary school students

In 1990, the AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices of fifth year (final year) students at four Managuan high schools were assessed. This was done by means of a self administered questionnaire completed by 451 students (155 males, 296 females) whose mean age was 18 years. Eighty-six percent of the subjects knew AIDS was transmitted sexually, but the percentage aware of other transmission pathways and effective preventive measures were much lower. Use of condoms was cited as a preventive measure by 41 percent of the students, but by significantly more male respondents than female respondents (55 percent of the males versus 33 percent of the females, p = 0.0001). Sixty-four percent of all the survey subjects (90 percent of the males, 50 percent of the females) reported experiencing sexual intercourse. Sixty percent of the respondents were "very much" worried about AIDS, but only 23 percent considered themselves at risk of contracting the disease. Among the sexually active students, 29 percent of the respondents (38 percent of the male but only 7 percent of the females, p = 0.001) indicated a change in sexual behavior because of AIDS. Reported behavior change was strongly associated with concern about AIDS, but the association between reported behavior change and perception of personal risk was weak. Overall, the survey indicated that knowledge about transmission and prevention of AIDS among Managuan high school students was insufficent, especially among females, indicating a need for health education including interventions specially targeted a female youth

Conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas acerca del SIDA entre estudiantes de escuelas secundarias de Managua / HIV/AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices among Managuan secondary school students

En 1990, se determinaron los conocimientos, actitudes y prácticas acerca del SIDA entre estudiantes del último año (5) de cuatro escuelas secundarias de Managua. Se empleó un cuestionario autoadministrado que fue completado por 451 estudiantes (155 varones y 296 mujeres) cuyo promedio fue 18 años. El 86 por ciento de los sujetos sabía que el SIDA era una enfermedad de transmisión sexual, pero fue mucho menor el porcentaje que conocía otras vías de transmisión y medidas preventivas eficaces. El empleo de condones fue mencionado como medida preventiva por 41 por ciento de los estudiantes, pero el porcentaje entre los varones fue significativamente mayor entre las mujeres (55 por ciento y 33 por ciento respectivamente, P=0,0001). Del total de los encuestados, 64 por ciento (90 por ciento de los varones y 50 por ciento de las mujeres) informaron que habían tenido relaciones sexuales. El 60 por ciento de los entrevistados estaba "muy preocupado" por el SIDA, pero solo el 23 por ciento consideraban que corrían riesgo de contraer la enfermedad. Entre los estudiantes sexualmente activos, 29 por ciento (38 por ciento de los varones y solo 7 por ciento de las mujeres), P=0,001), señalaron que se había modificado su comportamiento sexual a causa del SIDA. La notificación de una modificación de conducta se asoció mucho con la preocupación respecto a la enfermedad, pero fue débil la asociación entre la modificación del comportamiento sexual señalada y la percepción de un riesgo personal. En general, la encuesta indicó que los conocimientos acerca de la transmisión y la prevención del SIDA de los estudiantes de escuelas secundarias de Managua eran insuficientes, en especial entre las mujeres, lo que señala la necesidad de la educación sanitaria, que incluya intervenciones especificamente dirigidas a las jóvenes (AU)

Diarrea infantil en la Nicaragua rural: creencias y prácticas de salud tradicionales / Childhood diarrhea in rural Nicaragua: beliefs and traditional health practices

En Nicaragua la causa principal de mortalidad infantil es la diarrea, que causa 40 por ciento de las muertes anuales. Ello refleja el poco uso de los servicios de salud y de la terapia de rehidratación en el municipio Villa Carlos Fonseca. En este informe se describen dos de los estudios, uno etnográfico y el otro epidemiológico, realizados en 1989 y 1990, respectivamente, para conocer las crencias y prácticas de salud tradicionales y su influencia en la forma como las madres responden a la diarrea de sus hijos. En el estudio etnográfico se entrevistó a 70 madres con una media de edad de 28 años e hijos menores de 2 años, que representaban dos grupos, uno de alto riesgo de diarrea y otro de bajo riesgo y las formas de tratamiento en uso. En el estudio epidemiológico participaron 391 madres mayores de 14 años con uno o más hijos menores de 5, de los cuales 216 tuvieron diarrea en las 2 semanas anteriores. Los objetivos fueron describir las creencias y prácticas de salud locales y determinar la incidencia de las diarreas de acuerdo con el diagnóstico que hicieran las madres. Se identificaron por lo menos 12 tipos de diarrea con nombres como "empacho" y "sol de vista". En la mayoría de los casos, las madres confiaban más en los tratamientos folklóricos que aplicaban ellas mismas o las curanderas que en los servicios del centro de salud. Esto limitaba su uso de los servicios y de la TRO, pero se observó que en ciertos casos combinaban los tratamientos tradicionales con los de la medicina occidental. Hubo una correlación directa, pero no significativa, entre el nivel de escolaridad de las madres y la frecuencia con que visitaban el centro de salud. Los autores sugieren estudiar los efectos de los masajes, baños de hiebas y otros tratamientos tradicionales para evaluar y adaptarlos en cuanto sea posible a la medicina "moderna". Los prestadores de servicios de salud deben familiarizarse con la nomenclatura y creencias tradicionales para comunicarse mejor con las madres, y reorientar las prácticas perjudiciales hacia mejores resultados en los programas de prevención de la diarrea infantil

HIV/AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices among Managuan secondary school students

In 1990, the AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices of fifth year (final year) students at four Managuan high schools were assessed. This was done by means of a self administered questionnaire completed by 451 students (155 males, 296 females) whose mean age was 18 years. Eighty-six percent of the subjects knew AIDS was transmitted sexually, but the percentage aware of other transmission pathways and effective preventive measures were much lower. Use of condoms was cited as a preventive measure by 41 percent of the students, but by significantly more male respondents than female respondents (55 percent of the males versus 33 percent of the females, p = 0.0001). Sixty-four percent of all the survey subjects (90 percent of the males, 50 percent of the females) reported experiencing sexual intercourse. Sixty percent of the respondents were "very much" worried about AIDS, but only 23 percent considered themselves at risk of contracting the disease. Among the sexually active students, 29 percent of the respondents (38 percent of the male but only 7 percent of the females, p = 0.001) indicated a change in sexual behavior because of AIDS. Reported behavior change was strongly associated with concern about AIDS, but the association between reported behavior change and perception of personal risk was weak. Overall, the survey indicated that knowledge about transmission and prevention of AIDS among Managuan high school students was insufficent, especially among females, indicating a need for health education including interventions specially targeted a female youth

This article will also be published in Spanish in the Bol. Oficina Sanit. Panam. Vol. 117(1):12-21, 1994