Primaquine alternative dosing schedules for preventing malaria relapse in people with Plasmodium vivax.

BACKGROUND: Plasmodium vivax liver stages (hypnozoites) may cause relapses, prolonging morbidity, and impeding malaria control and elimination. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends three schedules for primaquine: 0.25 mg/kg/day (standard), or 0.5 mg/kg/day (high standard) for 14 days, or 0.75 mg/kg once weekly for eight weeks, all of which can be difficult to complete. Since primaquine can cause haemolysis in individuals with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, clinicians may be reluctant to prescribe primaquine without G6PD testing, and recommendations when G6PD status is unknown must be based on an assessment of the risks and benefits of prescribing primaquine. Alternative safe and efficacious regimens are needed. OBJECTIVES: To assess the efficacy and safety of alternative primaquine regimens for radical cure of P vivax malaria compared to the standard or high-standard 14-day courses. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register; the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); MEDLINE (PubMed); Embase (Ovid); LILACS (BIREME); WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and ClinicalTrials.gov up to 2 September 2019, and checked the reference lists of all identified studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of adults and children with P vivax malaria using either chloroquine or artemisinin-based combination therapy plus primaquine at a total adult dose of at least 210 mg, compared with the WHO-recommended regimens of 0.25 or 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed trial eligibility and quality, and extracted data. We calculated risk ratios (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for dichotomous data. We grouped efficacy data according to length of follow-up, partner drug, and trial location. We analysed safety data where included. MAIN RESULTS: 0.5 mg/kg/day for seven days versus standard 0.25 mg/kg/day for 14 days There may be little or no difference in P vivax recurrences at six to seven months when using the same total dose (210 mg adult dose) over seven days compared to 14 days (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.66 to 1.39; 4 RCTs, 1211 participants; low-certainty evidence). No serious adverse events were reported. We do not know if there is any difference in the number of adverse events resulting in discontinuation of primaquine (RR 1.04, 95% CI 0.15 to 7.38; 5 RCTs, 1427 participants) or in the frequency of anaemia (RR 3.00, 95% CI 0.12 to 72.91, 1 RCT, 240 participants) between the shorter and longer regimens (very low-certainty evidence). Three trials excluded people with G6PD deficiency; two did not provide this information. Pregnant and lactating women were either excluded or no details were provided. High-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days versus standard 0.25 mg/kg/day for 14 days There may be little or no difference in P vivax recurrences at six months with 0.5 mg/kg/day primaquine for 14 days compared to 0.25 mg/kg/day for 14 days (RR 0.84 (95% CI 0.49 to 1.43; 2 RCTs, 677 participants, low-certainty evidence). No serious adverse events were reported. We do not know whether there is a difference in adverse events resulting in discontinuation of treatment with the high-standard dosage (RR 4.19, 95% CI 0.90 to 19.60; 1 RCT, 778 participants, very low-certainty evidence). People with G6PD deficiency and pregnant or lactating women were excluded. 0.75 mg/kg/week for eight weeks versus high-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days We do not know whether weekly primaquine increases or decreases recurrences of P vivax compared to high-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days, at 11 months' follow-up (RR 3.18, 95% CI 0.37 to 27.60; 1 RCT, 122 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No serious adverse events and no episodes of anaemia were reported. G6PD-deficient patients were not randomized but included in the weekly primaquine group (only one patient detected). 1 mg/kg/day for seven days versus high standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days There is probably little or no difference in P vivax recurrences at 12 months between 1.0 mg/kg/day primaquine for seven days and the high-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.82 to 1.30; 2 RCTs, 2526 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). There may be moderate to large increase in serious adverse events in the 1.0 mg/kg/day primaquine for seven days compared with the high-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days, during 42 days follow-up (RR 12.03, 95% CI 1.57 to 92.30; 1 RCT, 1872 participants, low-certainty evidence). We do not know if there is a difference between 1.0 mg/kg/day primaquine for seven days and high-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days in adverse events that resulted in discontinuation of treatment (RR 2.50, 95% CI 0.49 to 12.87; 1 RCT, 2526 participants, very low-certainty evidence), nor if there is difference in frequency of anaemia by 42 days (RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.41; 2 RCTs, 2440 participants, very low-certainty evidence). People with G6PD deficiency were excluded. Other regimens Two RCTs evaluated other rarely-used doses of primaquine, one of which had very high loss to follow-up. Adverse events were not reported. People with G6PD deficiency and pregnant or lactating women were excluded. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Trials available to date do not detect a difference in recurrence between the following regimens: 1) 0.5 mg/kg/day for seven days versus standard 0.25 mg/kg/day for 14 days; 2) high-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days versus standard 0.25 mg/kg/day for 14 days; 3) 0.75 mg/kg/week for eight weeks versus high-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days; 4) 1 mg/kg/day for seven days versus high-standard 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days. There were no differences detected in adverse events for Comparisons 1, 2 or 3, but there may be more serious adverse events with the high seven-day course in Comparison 4. The shorter regimen of 0.5 mg/kg/day for seven days versus standard 0.25 mg/kg/day for 14 days may suit G6PD-normal patients. Further research will help increase the certainty of the findings and applicability in different settings.

Primaquine at alternative dosing schedules for preventing relapse in people with Plasmodium vivax malaria.

BACKGROUND: Malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax requires treatment of the blood-stage infection and treatment of the hypnozoites that develop in the liver. This is a challenge to effective case management of P vivax malaria, as well as being a more general substantial impediment to malaria control. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a 14-day drug course with primaquine, an 8-aminoquinoline, at 0.25 mg/kg/day in most of the world (standard course), or 0.5 mg/kg/day in East Asia and Oceania (high-standard course). This long treatment course can be difficult to complete, and primaquine can cause dangerous haemolysis in individuals with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, meaning that physicians may be reluctant to prescribe in areas where G6PD testing is not available. This Cochrane Review evaluated whether more patient-friendly alternative regimens are as efficacious as the standard regimen for radical cure ofP vivax malaria. OBJECTIVES: To assess the efficacy and safety of alternative primaquine regimens for radical cure of P vivax malaria compared to the standard or high-standard 14 days of primaquine (0.25 or 0.5 mg/kg/day), as well as comparison of these two WHO-recommended regimens. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group (CIDG) Specialized Register; the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); MEDLINE (PubMed); Embase (Ovid); and LILACS (BIREME) up to 17 December 2018. We also searched the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) and ClinicalTrials.gov, and checked the reference lists of all studies identified by the above methods. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of adults and children with P vivax malaria using any regimen of either chloroquine or an artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) plus primaquine with either higher daily doses for 14 days, shorter regimens with the same total dose, or using weekly dosing regimens; compared with the usual standard regimens recommended by the WHO (0.25 or 0.5 mg/kg/day for 14 days), or a comparison of these two WHO-recommended regimens. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed trial eligibility and quality, and extracted data. We calculated risk ratios (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for dichotomous data. We grouped efficacy data according to length of follow-up. We analysed safety data where this information was included. MAIN RESULTS: High-standard 14-day course versus standard 14-day courseTwo RCTs compared the high-standard 14-day regimen with the standard 14-day regimen. People with G6PD deficiency and pregnant or lactating women were excluded. We do not know if there is any difference in P vivax recurrences at 6 months with 0.5 mg/kg/day primaquine therapy for 14 days compared to 0.25 mg/kg/day primaquine therapy for 14 days (with chloroquine: RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.47 to 1.43, 639 participants, very low-certainty evidence; with chloroquine or an ACT: RR 1.11, 95% CI 0.17 to 7.09, 38 participants, very low-certainty evidence). No serious adverse events were reported. We do not know whether there is a difference in adverse events with the higher dosage (very low-certainty evidence).0.5 mg/kg/day primaquine for 7 days versus standard 14-day courseFive RCTs compared 0.5 mg/kg/day primaquine for 7 days with the standard 14-day course. There may be little or no difference in P vivax recurrences at 6 to 7 months when using the same total dose (0.5 mg/kg/day to 210 mg) over 7 days as compared to 14 days (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.66 to 1.39; 1211 participants; low-certainty evidence). No serious adverse events were reported. There may be little or no difference in the number of adverse events known to occur with primaquine between the primaquine shorter regimen as compared to the longer regimen (RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.64 to 1.76; 1154 participants; low-certainty evidence). We do not know whether there is any difference in the frequency of anaemia or discontinuation of treatment between groups (very low-certainty evidence). Three trials excluded people with G6PD deficiency, and two did not provide this information. Pregnant and lactating women were either excluded or no details were provided regarding their inclusion or exclusion.0.75 mg/kg primaquine/week for 8 weeks versus high-standard course One RCT compared weekly primaquine with the high-standard 14-day course. G6PD-deficient patients were not randomized but were included in the weekly primaquine group. Only one G6PD-deficient participant was detected during the trial. We do not know whether weekly primaquine increases or decreases recurrences of P vivax compared to the 14-day regimen at 11 months' follow-up (RR 3.18, 95% CI 0.37 to 27.6; 122 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No serious adverse events and no episodes of anaemia were reported.Three other RCTs evaluated different alternative regimens and doses of primaquine, but one of these RCTs did not have results available, and two used regimens that have not been widely used and the evidence was of very low certainty. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Although limited data were available, the analysis did not detect a difference in recurrence between the 7-day regimen and the standard 14-day regimen of 0.5 mg/kg/day primaquine, and no serious adverse events were reported in G6PD-normal participants taking 0.5 mg/kg/day of primaquine. This shorter regimen may be useful in G6PD-normal patients if there are treatment adherence concerns. Further large high-quality RCTs are needed, such as the IMPROV trial, with more standardised comparison regimens and longer follow-up to help resolve uncertainties.

Primaquine or other 8-aminoquinolines for reducing Plasmodium falciparum transmission.

BACKGROUND: The 8-aminoquinoline (8AQ) drugs act on Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes, which transmit malaria from infected people to mosquitoes. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended a single dose of 0.25 mg/kg primaquine (PQ) be added to malaria treatment schedules in low-transmission areas or those with artemisinin resistance. This replaced the previous recommendation of 0.75 mg/kg, aiming to reduce haemolysis risk in people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, common in people living in malarious areas. Whether this approach, and at this dose, is effective in reducing transmission is not clear. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of single dose or short-course PQ (or an alternative 8AQ) alongside treatment for people with P. falciparum malaria. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register; the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), published in the Cochrane Library; and the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICRTP) portal using 'malaria*', 'falciparum', 'primaquine', '8-aminoquinoline', and eight 8AQ drug names as search terms. We checked reference lists of included trials, and contacted researchers and organizations. Date of last search: 21 July 2017. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-RCTs in children or adults, adding PQ (or alternative 8AQ) as a single dose or short course alongside treatment for P. falciparum malaria. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two authors screened abstracts, applied inclusion criteria, and extracted data. We sought evidence on transmission (community incidence), infectiousness (people infectious and mosquitoes infected), and potential infectiousness (gametocyte measures assessed by microscopy or polymerase chain reaction [PCR]). We grouped trials into artemisinin and non-artemisinin treatments, and stratified by PQ dose (low, 0.2 to 0.25 mg/kg; moderate, 0.4 to 0.5 mg/kg; high, 0.75 mg/kg). We used GRADE, and absolute effects of infectiousness using trial control groups. MAIN RESULTS: We included 24 RCTs and one quasi-RCT, comprising 43 arms. Fourteen trials evaluated artemisinin treatments (23 arms), nine trials evaluated non-artemisinin treatments (13 arms), and two trials included both artemisinin and non-artemisinin arms (three and two arms, respectively). Two trial arms used bulaquine. Seven PQ arms used low dose (six with artemisinin), 11 arms used moderate dose (seven with artemisinin), and the remaining arms used high dose. Fifteen trials tested for G6PD status: 11 excluded participants with G6PD deficiency, one included only those with G6PD deficiency, and three included all, irrespective of status. The remaining 10 trials either did not test or did not report on testing.No cluster trials evaluating community effects on malaria transmission met the inclusion criteria.With artemisinin treatmentLow dose PQInfectiousness (participants infectious to mosquitoes) was reduced (day 3 or 4: RR 0.12, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.88, 3 trials, 105 participants; day 8: RR 0.34, 95% CI 0.07 to 1.58, 4 trials, 243 participants; low certainty evidence). This translates to a reduction in percentage of people infectious on day 3 or 4 from 14% to 2%, and, for day 8, from 4% to 1%; the waning infectiousness in the control group by day 8 making the absolute effect smaller by day 8. For gametocytes detected by PCR, there was little or no effect of PQ at day 3 or 4 (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.21; 3 trials, 414 participants; moderate certainty evidence); with reduction at day 8 (RR 0.52, 95% CI 0.41 to 0.65; 4 trials, 532 participants; high certainty evidence). Severe haemolysis was infrequent, with or without PQ, in these groups with few G6PD-deficient individuals (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.69 to 1.39; 4 trials, 752 participants, moderate certainty evidence).Moderate dose PQInfectiousness was reduced (day 3 or 4: RR 0.13, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.94; 3 trials, 109 participants; day 8 RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.07 to 1.57; 4 trials, 246 participants; low certainty evidence). Illustrative risk estimates for moderate dose were the same as low dose. The pattern and level of certainty of evidence with gametocytes detected by PCR was the same as low dose, and severe haemolysis was infrequent in both groups.High dose PQInfectiousness was reduced (day 4: RR 0.2, 95% CI 0.02 to 1.68, 1 trial, 101 participants; day 8: RR 0.18, 95% CI 0.02 to 1.41, 2 trials, 181 participants, low certainty evidence). The effects on gametocyte prevalence showed a similar pattern to moderate and low dose PQ. Trials did not systematically report evidence of haemolysis.With non-artemisinin treatmentTrials with non-artemisinin treatment have been conducted only for moderate and high dose PQ. With high dose, infectiousness appeared markedly reduced on day 5 (RR 0.09, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.62; 30 participants, very low certainty evidence), with similar reductions at day 8. For both moderate dose (two trials with 221 people) and high dose (two trials with 30 people), reduction in gametocytes (detected by microscopy) showed similar patterns as for artemisinin treatments, with little or no effect at day 4 or 5, and larger effects by day 8. No trials with non-artemisinin partner drugs systematically sought evidence of severe haemolysis.Two trials comparing bulaquine with PQ suggest bulaquine may have larger effects on gametocytes by microscopy on day 8 (RR 0.41, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.66; 2 trials, 112 participants). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: A single low dose of PQ (0.25 mg/kg) added to artemisinin-based combination therapy for malaria reduces infectiousness of people to mosquitoes at day 3-4 and day 8, and appears as effective as higher doses. The absolute effect is greater at day 3 or 4, and smaller at day 8, in part because of the lower infectiousness in the control group. There was no evidence of increased haemolysis at 0.25 mg/kg, but few G6PD-deficient individuals were included in the trials. The effect on infectiousness precedes the effect of PQ on gametocyte prevalence. We do not know whether single dose PQ could reduce malaria transmission at community level.

Safety of primaquine given to people with G6PD deficiency: systematic review of prospective studies.

BACKGROUND: Haemolysis risk with single dose or short course primaquine was evaluated in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficient people. METHODS: Major electronic databases (to August 2016) were searched for single or short course 8-aminoquinolines (8-AQ) in (1) randomized comparisons against placebo in G6PD deficient people; and (2) observational comparisons in G6PD deficient compared to replete people. Two authors independently assessed eligibility, risk-of-bias, and extracted data. RESULTS: Five randomized controlled trials and four controlled observational cohorts were included. In G6PD deficient individuals, high-dose (0.75 mg/kg) PQ resulted in lower average haemoglobin levels at 7 days (mean difference [MD] -1.45 g/dl, 95% CI -2.17 to -0.74, 2 trials) and larger percentage fall from baseline to day 7 (MD -10.31%, 95% CI -17.69 to -2.92, 3 trials) compared to placebo. In G6PD deficient compared to replete people, average haemoglobin was lower at 7 days (MD -1.19 g/dl, 95% CI -1.94 to -0.44, 2 trials) and haemoglobin change from baseline to day 7 was greater (MD -9.10%, 95% CI -12.55 to -5.65, 5 trials). One small trial evaluated mid-range PQ dose (0.4-0.5 mg/kg) in G6PD deficient people, with no difference detected in average haemoglobin at day 7 compared to placebo. In one cohort comparing G6PD deficient and replete people there was a greater fall with G6PD deficiency (MD -4.99%, 95% CI -9.96 to -0.02). For low-dose PQ (0.1-0.25 mg/kg) in G6PD deficient people, haemoglobin change from baseline was similar to the placebo group (MD 1.72%, 95% CI -1.89 to 5.34, 2 trials). Comparing low dose PQ in G6PD deficient with replete people, the average haemoglobin was lower in the G6PD deficient group at 7 days (-0.57 g (95% CI -0.97 to -0.17, 1 trial)); although change from baseline was similar (MD -1.45%, 95% CI -5.69 to 2.78, 3 trials). CONCLUSIONS: Falls in average haemoglobin are less marked with the 0.1 to 0.25 mg/kg PQ than with the 0.75 mg/kg dose, and severe haemolytic events are not common. However, data were limited and the evidence GRADE was low or very low certainty.

Primaquine or other 8-aminoquinoline for reducing Plasmodium falciparum transmission.

BACKGROUND: Mosquitoes become infected with Plasmodium when they ingest gametocyte-stage parasites from an infected person's blood. Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes are sensitive to 8-aminoquinolines (8AQ), and consequently these drugs could prevent parasite transmission from infected people to mosquitoes and reduce the incidence of malaria. However, when used in this way, these drugs will not directly benefit the individual.In 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended a single dose of primaquine (PQ) at 0.75 mg/kg alongside treatment for P. falciparum malaria to reduce transmission in areas approaching malaria elimination. In 2013, the WHO revised this to 0.25 mg/kg to reduce risk of harms in people with G6PD deficiency. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of PQ (or an alternative 8AQ) given alongside treatment for P. falciparum malaria on malaria transmission and on the occurrence of adverse events. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the following databases up to 5 January 2015: the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register; the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), published in The Cochrane Library (Issue 1, 2015); MEDLINE (1966 to 5 January 2015); EMBASE (1980 to 5 January 2015); LILACS (1982 to 5 January 2015); metaRegister of Controlled Trials (mRCT); and the WHO trials search portal using 'malaria*', 'falciparum', 'primaquine', 8-aminoquinoline and eight individual 8AQ drug names as search terms. In addition, we searched conference proceedings and reference lists of included studies, and contacted researchers and organizations. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-RCTs in children or adults, comparing PQ (or alternative 8AQ) as a single dose or short course alongside treatment for P. falciparum malaria, with the same malaria treatment given without PQ/8AQ. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently screened all abstracts, applied inclusion criteria and extracted data. We sought evidence of an impact on transmission (community incidence), infectiousness (mosquitoes infected from humans) and potential infectiousness (gametocyte measures). We calculated the area under the curve (AUC) for gametocyte density over time for comparisons for which data were available. We sought data on haematological and other adverse effects, asexual parasite clearance time and recrudescence. We stratified the analysis by artemisinin and non-artemisinin treatments; and by PQ dose (low < 0.4 mg/kg; medium ≥ 0.4 to < 0.6 mg/kg; high ≥ 0.6 mg/kg). We used the GRADE approach to assess evidence quality. MAIN RESULTS: We included 17 RCTs and one quasi-RCT. Eight trials tested for G6PD status: six then excluded participants with G6PD deficiency, one included only those with G6PD deficiency, and one included all irrespective of status. The remaining 10 trials either did not report on whether they tested (eight trials), or reported that they did not test (two trials).Nine trials included study arms with artemisinin-based treatments and eleven included study arms with non-artemisinin-based treatments.Only one trial evaluated PQ given as a single dose of less than 0.4 mg/kg. PQ with artemisinin-based treatments: No trials evaluated effects on malaria transmission directly (incidence, prevalence or entomological inoculation rate) and none evaluated infectiousness to mosquitoes. For potential infectiousness, the proportion of people with detectable gametocytaemia on day eight was reduced by around two-thirds with the high dose PQ category (RR 0.29, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.22 to 0.37; seven trials, 1380 participants, high quality evidence) and the medium dose PQ category (RR 0.30, 95% CI 0.16 to 0.56; one trial, 219 participants, moderate quality evidence). For the low dose category, the effect size was smaller and the 95% CIs include the possibility of no effect (dose: 0.1 mg/kg: RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.02; one trial, 223 participants, low quality evidence). Reductions in log(10)AUC estimates for gametocytaemia on days 1 to 43 with medium and high doses ranged from 24.3% to 87.5%. For haemolysis, one trial reported percent change in mean haemoglobin against baseline and did not detect a difference between the two arms (very low quality evidence). PQ with non-artemisinin treatments: No trials assessed effects on malaria transmission directly. Two small trials from the same laboratory in China evaluated infectiousness to mosquitoes, and reported that infectivity was eliminated on day 8 in 15/15 patients receiving high dose PQ compared to 1/15 in the control group (low quality evidence). For potential infectiousness, the proportion of people with detectable gametocytaemia on day 8 was reduced by three-fifths with high dose PQ category (RR 0.39, 95% CI 0.25 to 0.62; four trials, 186 participants, high quality evidence), and by around two-fifths with medium dose category (RR 0.60, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.75; one trial, 216 participants, high quality evidence), with no trial in the low dose PQ category reporting this outcome. Reduction in log(10)AUC for gametocytaemia days 1 to 43 were 24.3% and 27.1% for two arms in one trial giving medium dose PQ. No trials systematically sought evidence of haemolysis.Two trials evaluated the 8AQ bulaquine, and suggest the effects may be greater than PQ, but the small number of participants (N = 112) preclude a definite conclusion. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: In individual patients, PQ added to malaria treatments reduces gametocyte prevalence, but this is based on trials using doses of more than 0.4 mg/kg. Whether this translates into preventing people transmitting malaria to mosquitoes has rarely been tested in controlled trials, but there appeared to be a strong reduction in infectiousness in the two small studies that evaluated this. No included trials evaluated whether this policy has an impact on community malaria transmission.For the currently recommended low dose regimen, there is currently little direct evidence to be confident that the effect of reduction in gametocyte prevalence is preserved, or that it is safe in people with G6PD deficiency.

Estimation of insecticide persistence, biological activity and mosquito resistance to PermaNet® 2 long-lasting insecticidal nets over three to 32 months of use in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Information is needed on the expected durability of insecticidal nets under operational conditions. The persistence of insecticidal efficacy is important to estimate the median serviceable life of nets under field conditions and to plan for net replacement. METHODS: Deltamethrin residue levels were evaluated by the proxy method of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry on 189 nets used for three to six months from nine sites, 220 nets used for 14-20 months from 11 sites, and 200 nets used for 26-32 months from ten sites in Ethiopia. A random sample of 16.5-20% of nets from each time period (total 112 of 609 nets) were tested by bioassay with susceptible mosquitoes, and nets used for 14-20 months and 26-32 months were also tested with wild caught mosquitoes. RESULTS: Mean insecticide levels estimated by X-ray fluorescence declined by 25.9% from baseline of 66.2 (SD 14.6) mg/m2 at three to six months to 44.1 (SD 21.2) mg/m2 at 14-20 months and by 30.8% to 41.1 (SD 18.9) mg/m2 at 26-32 months. More than 95% of nets retained greater than 10 mg/m2 of deltamethrin and over 79% had at least 25 mg/m2 at all time periods. By bioassay with susceptible Anopheles, mortality averaged 89.0% on 28 nets tested at three to six months, 93.3% on 44 nets at 14-20 months and 94.1% on 40 nets at 26-32 months. With wild caught mosquitoes, mortality averaged 85.4% (range 79.1 to 91.7%) at 14-20 months but had dropped significantly to 47.2% (39.8 to 54.7%) at 26-32 months. CONCLUSIONS: Insecticide residue level, as estimated by X-ray fluorescence, declined by about one third between three and six months and 14-20 months, but remained relatively stable and above minimum requirements thereafter up to 26-32 months. The insecticidal activity of PermaNet® 2.0 long-lasting insecticidal nets in the specified study area may be considered effective to susceptible mosquitoes at least for the duration indicated in this study (32 months). However, results indicated that resistance in the wild population is already rendering nets with optimum insecticide concentrations less effective in practice.

Malaria prevalence, anemia and baseline intervention coverage prior to mass net distributions in Abia and Plateau States, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Nigeria suffers the world's largest malaria burden, with approximately 51 million cases and 207,000 deaths annually. As part of the country's aim to reduce by 50% malaria-related morbidity and mortality by 2013, it embarked on mass distribution of free long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). METHODS: Prior to net distribution campaigns in Abia and Plateau States, Nigeria, a modified malaria indicator survey was conducted in September 2010 to determine baseline state-level estimates of Plasmodium prevalence, childhood anemia, indoor residual spraying (IRS) coverage and bednet ownership and utilization. RESULTS: Overall age-adjusted prevalence of Plasmodium infection by microscopy was similar between Abia (36.1%, 95% CI: 32.3%-40.1%; n = 2,936) and Plateau (36.6%, 95% CI: 31.3%-42.3%; n = 4,209), with prevalence highest among children 5-9 years. P. malariae accounted for 32.0% of infections in Abia, but only 1.4% of infections in Plateau. More than half of children ≤10 years were anemic, with anemia significantly higher in Abia (76.9%, 95% CI: 72.1%-81.0%) versus Plateau (57.1%, 95% CI: 50.6%-63.4%). Less than 1% of households in Abia (n = 1,305) or Plateau (n = 1,335) received IRS in the 12 months prior to survey. Household ownership of at least one bednet of any type was 10.1% (95% CI: 7.5%-13.4%) in Abia and 35.1% (95% CI: 29.2%-41.5%) in Plateau. Ownership of two or more bednets was 2.1% (95% CI: 1.2%-3.7%) in Abia and 14.5% (95% CI: 10.2%-20.3%) in Plateau. Overall reported net use the night before the survey among all individuals, children <5 years, and pregnant women was 3.4%, 6.0% and 5.7%, respectively in Abia and 14.7%, 19.1% and 21.0%, respectively in Plateau. Among households owning nets, 34.4% of children <5 years and 31.6% of pregnant women in Abia used a net, compared to 52.6% of children and 62.7% of pregnant women in Plateau. CONCLUSIONS: These results reveal high Plasmodium prevalence and childhood anemia in both states, low baseline coverage of IRS and LLINs, and sub-optimal net use-especially among age groups with highest observed malaria burden.

Primaquine or other 8-aminoquinoline for reducing P. falciparum transmission.

BACKGROUND: Mosquitoes become infected with Plasmodium when they ingest gametocyte-stage parasites from an infected person's blood. Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes are sensitive to the drug primaquine (PQ) and other 8-aminoquinolines (8AQ); these drugs could prevent parasite transmission from infected people to mosquitoes, and consequently reduce the incidence of malaria. However, PQ will not directly benefit the individual, and could be harmful to those with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency.In 2010, The World Health Organization (WHO) recommended a single dose of PQ at 0.75 mg/kg, alongside treatment for P. falciparum malaria to reduce transmission in areas approaching malaria elimination. In 2013 the WHO revised this to 0.25 mg/kg due to concerns about safety. OBJECTIVES: To assess whether giving PQ or an alternative 8AQ alongside treatment for P. falciparum malaria reduces malaria transmission, and to estimate the frequency of severe or haematological adverse events when PQ is given for this purpose. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the following databases up to 10 Feb 2014 for trials: the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register; the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), published in The Cochrane Library; MEDLINE; EMBASE; LILACS; metaRegister of Controlled Trials (mRCT); and the WHO trials search portal using 'malaria*', 'falciparum', and 'primaquine' as search terms. In addition, we searched conference proceedings and reference lists of included studies, and contacted researchers and organizations. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or quasi-RCTs comparing PQ (or alternative 8AQ) given as a single dose or short course alongside treatment for P. falciparum malaria with malaria treatment given without PQ/8AQ in adults or children. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two authors independently screened all abstracts, applied inclusion criteria, and extracted data. We sought evidence of an impact on transmission (community incidence), infectiousness (mosquitoes infected from humans) and potential infectiousness (gametocyte measures). We calculated the area under the curve (AUC) for gametocyte density over time for comparisons for which data were available. We sought data on haematological and other adverse effects, as well as secondary outcomes of asexual clearance time and recrudescence. We stratified by whether the malaria treatment regimen included an artemisinin derivative or not; by PQ dose category (low < 0.4 mg/kg; medium ≥ 0.4 to < 0.6 mg/kg; high ≥ 0.6 mg/kg); and by PQ schedules. We used the GRADE approach to assess evidence quality. MAIN RESULTS: We included 17 RCTs and one quasi-RCT. Eight studies tested for G6PD status: six then excluded participants with G6PD deficiency, one included only those with G6PD deficiency, and one included all irrespective of status. The remaining ten trials either did not report on whether they tested (8), or reported that they did not test (2). Nine trials included study arms with artemisinin-based malaria treatment regimens, and eleven included study arms with non-artemisinin-based treatments.Only two trials evaluated PQ given at low doses (0.25 mg/kg in one and 0.1 mg/kg in the other). PQ with artemisinin-based treatments: No trials evaluated effects on malaria transmission directly (incidence, prevalence, or entomological inoculation rate), and none evaluated infectiousness to mosquitoes. For potential infectiousness, the proportion of people with detectable gametocytaemia on day eight was reduced by around two thirds with high dose PQ category (RR 0.29, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.37, seven trials, 1380 participants, high quality evidence), and with medium dose PQ category (RR 0.34, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.59, two trials, 269 participants, high quality evidence), but the trial evaluating low dose PQ category (0.1 mg/kg) did not demonstrate an effect (RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.02, one trial, 223 participants, low quality evidence). Reductions in log(10)AUC estimates for gametocytaemia on days 1 to 43 with medium and high doses ranged from 24.3% to 87.5%. For haemolysis, one trial reported percent change in mean haemoglobin against baseline, and did not detect a difference between the two arms (very low quality evidence). PQ with non-artemisinin treatments: No trials assessed effects on malaria transmission directly. Two small trials from the same laboratory evaluated infectiousness to mosquitoes, and report that infectivity was eliminated on day 8 in 15/15 patients receiving high dose PQ compared to 1/15 in the control group (low quality evidence). For potential infectiousness, the proportion of people with detectable gametocytaemia on day 8 was reduced by around half with high dose PQ category (RR 0.44, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.70, three trials, 206 participants, high quality evidence), and by around a third with medium dose category (RR 0.62, 0.50 to 0.76, two trials, 283 participants, high quality evidence), but the single trial using low dose PQ category did not demonstrate a difference between groups (one trial, 59 participants, very low quality evidence). Reduction in log(10)AUC for gametocytaemia days 1 to 43 were 24.3% and 27.1% for two arms in one trial giving medium dose PQ. No trials systematically sought evidence of haemolysis.Two trials evaluated the 8AQ bulaquine, and suggest the effects may be greater than PQ, but the small number of participants (n = 112) preclude a definite conclusion. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: In individual patients, PQ added to malaria treatments reduces gametocyte prevalence when given in doses greater than 0.4 mg/kg. Whether this translates into preventing people transmitting malaria to mosquitoes has rarely been tested in controlled trials, but there appeared to be a strong reduction in infectiousness in the two small studies that evaluated this. No included trials evaluated whether this policy has an impact on community malaria transmission either in low-endemic settings approaching elimination, or in highly-endemic settings where many people are infected but have no symptoms and are unlikely to be treated.For the currently recommended low dose regimen, there is little direct evidence to be confident that the effect of reduction in gametocyte prevalence is preserved.Most trials excluded people with G6PD deficiency, and thus there is little reliable evidence from controlled trials of the safety of PQ in single dose or short course.

Ongoing transmission of lymphatic filariasis in Samoa 4.5 years after one round of triple-drug mass drug administration.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic filariasis (LF) remains a significant global issue. To eliminate LF as a public health problem, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends multiple rounds of mass drug administration (MDA). In certain scenarios, including when elimination targets have not been met with two-drug MDA, triple-drug MDA (using ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine and albendazole) is recommended. In this study, we report on antigen (Ag) and microfilaria (Mf) prevalence in eight primary sampling units (PSUs) in Samoa 4.5 years after one round of triple-drug MDA. METHODOLOGY: In 2023, community surveys were conducted in eight PSUs that had been surveyed previously in 2018 (between 1.5 and 3.5 months post triple-drug MDA) and 2019 (six to eight-months post triple-drug MDA). Fifteen houses were randomly selected in each PSU with household members aged ≥ 5 years invited to participate. Blood samples were tested for Ag and Mf. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Ag-positive participants were observed in six of the eight PSUs, and Ag prevalence was significantly above the 1% threshold in four PSUs. The presence of Mf-positive participants in five PSUs confirms the presence of residual active infections. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: This study provides evidence of persistent LF transmission in Samoa 4.5 years after one round of triple-drug MDA, confirming that one round was insufficient for interruption of transmission in this setting. Our findings highlight the negative impact of delaying MDA rounds, for example, due to public health emergencies.

Molecular xenomonitoring as an indicator of microfilaraemia prevalence for lymphatic filariasis in Samoa in 2019.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a globally significant, vector-borne, neglected tropical disease that can result in severe morbidity and disability. As the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis makes progress towards LF elimination, there is greater need to develop sensitive strategies for post-intervention surveillance. Molecular xenomonitoring (MX), the detection of pathogen DNA in vectors, may provide a sensitive complement to traditional human-based surveillance techniques, including detection of circulating filarial antigen and microfilaraemia (Mf). This study aims to explore the relationship between human Mf prevalence and the prevalence of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-positive mosquitoes using MX. METHODS: This study compared Mf and MX results from a 2019 community-based survey conducted in 35 primary sampling units (PSUs) in Samoa. This study also investigated concordance between presence and absence of PCR-positive mosquitoes and Mf-positive participants at the PSU level, and calculated sensitivity and negative predictive values for each indicator using presence of any Mf-positive infection in humans or PCR-positive mosquitoes as a reference. Correlation between prevalence of filarial DNA in mosquitoes and Mf in humans was estimated at the PSU and household/trap level using mixed-effect Bayesian multilevel regression analysis. RESULTS: Mf-positive individuals were identified in less than half of PSUs in which PCR-positive mosquito pools were present (13 of 28 PSUs). Prevalence of PCR-positive mosquitoes (each species separately) was positively correlated with Mf prevalence in humans at the PSU level. Analysed at the species level, only Aedes polynesiensis demonstrated strong evidence of positive correlation (r) with human Mf prevalence at both PSU (r: 0.5, 95% CrI 0.1-0.8) and trap/household levels (r: 0.6, 95% CrI 0.2-0.9). CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this study demonstrate that MX can be a sensitive surveillance method for identifying residual infection in low Mf prevalence settings. MX identified more locations with signals of transmission than Mf-testing. Strong correlation between estimated PCR-positive mosquitoes in the primary vector species and Mf in humans at small spatial scales demonstrates the utility of MX as an indicator for LF prevalence in Samoa and similar settings. Further investigation is needed to develop MX guidelines to strengthen the ability of MX to inform operational decisions.

Field laboratory comparison of STANDARD Q Filariasis Antigen Test (QFAT) with Bioline Filariasis Test Strip (FTS) for the detection of Lymphatic Filariasis in Samoa, 2023.

BACKGROUND: To monitor the progress of lymphatic filariasis (LF) elimination programmes, field surveys to assess filarial antigen (Ag) prevalence require access to reliable, user-friendly rapid diagnostic tests. We aimed to evaluate the performance of the new Q Filariasis Antigen Test (QFAT) with the currently recommended Filariasis Test Strip (FTS) for detecting the Ag of Wuchereria bancrofti, the causative agent of LF, under field laboratory conditions. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: During an LF survey in Samoa, 344 finger-prick blood samples were tested using FTS and QFAT. Microfilariae (Mf) status was determined from blood slides prepared from any sample that reported Ag-positive by either Ag-test. Each test was re-read at 1 hour and the next day to determine the stability of results over time. Overall Ag-positivity by FTS was 29.0% and 30.2% by QFAT. Concordance between the two tests was 93.6% (kappa = 0.85). Of the 101 Mf slides available, 39.6% were Mf-positive, and all were Ag-positive by both tests. Darker test line intensities from Ag-positive FTS were found to predict Mf-positivity (compared to same/lighter line intensities). QFAT had significantly higher reported test result changes than FTS, mostly reported the next day, but fewer changes were reported between 10 minutes to 1hour. The field laboratory team preferred QFAT over FTS due to the smaller blood volume required, better usability, and easier readability. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: QFAT could be a suitable and user-friendly diagnostic alternative for use in the monitoring and surveillance of LF in field surveys based on its similar performance to FTS under field laboratory conditions.

Physical durability of PermaNet 2.0 long-lasting insecticidal nets over three to 32 months of use in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Ethiopia scaled up net distribution markedly starting in 2006. Information on expected net life under field conditions (physical durability and persistence of insecticidal activity) is needed to improve planning for net replacement. Standardization of physical durability assessment methods is lacking. METHODS: Permanet®2.0 long-lasting insecticidal bed nets (LLINs), available for distribution in early 2007, were collected from households at three time intervals. The number, size and location of holes were recorded for 189 nets used for three to six months from nine sites (2007) and 220 nets used for 14 to 20 months from 11 sites (2008). In 2009, a "finger/fist" sizing method classified holes in 200 nets used for 26 to 32 months from ten sites into small (<2 cm), medium (> = 2 to < =10 cm) and large (>10 cm) sizes. A proportionate hole index based on both hole number and area was derived from these size classifications. RESULTS: After three to six months, 54.5% (95% CI 47.1-61.7%) of 189 LLINs had at least one hole 0.5 cm (in the longest axis) or larger; mean holes per net was 4.4 (SD 8.4), median was 1.0 (Inter Quartile Range [IQR] 0-5) and median size was 1 cm (IQR 1-2). At 14 to 20 months, 85.5% (95% CI 80.1-89.8%) of 220 nets had at least one hole with mean 29.1 (SD 50.1) and median 12 (IQR 3-36.5) holes per net, and median size of 1 cm (IQR 1-2). At 26 to 32 months, 92.5% of 200 nets had at least one hole with a mean of 62.2 (SD 205.4) and median of 23 (IQR 6-55.5) holes per net. The mean hole index was 24.3, 169.1 and 352.8 at the three time periods respectively. Repairs were rarely observed. The majority of holes were in the lower half of the net walls. The proportion of nets in 'poor' condition (hole index >300) increased from 0% at three to six months to 30% at 26 to 32 months. CONCLUSIONS: Net damage began quickly: more than half the nets had holes by three to six months of use, with 40% of holes being larger than 2 cm. Holes continued to accumulate until 92.5% of nets had holes by 26 to 32 months of use. An almost complete lack of repairs shows the need for promoting proper use of nets and repairs, to increase LLIN longevity. Using the hole index, almost one third of the nets were classed as unusable and ineffective after two and a half years of potential use.

Lymphatic filariasis endgame strategies: Using GEOFIL to model mass drug administration and targeted surveillance and treatment strategies in American Samoa.

American Samoa underwent seven rounds of mass drug administration (MDA) for lymphatic filariasis (LF) from 2000-2006, but subsequent surveys found evidence of ongoing transmission. American Samoa has since undergone further rounds of MDA in 2018, 2019, and 2021; however, recent surveys indicate that transmission is still ongoing. GEOFIL, a spatially-explicit agent-based LF model, was used to compare the effectiveness of territory-wide triple-drug MDA (3D-MDA) with targeted surveillance and treatment strategies. Both approaches relied on treatment with ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine, and albendazole. We simulated three levels of whole population coverage for 3D-MDA: 65%, 73%, and 85%, while the targeted strategies relied on surveillance in schools, workplaces, and households, followed by targeted treatment. In the household-based strategies, we simulated 1-5 teams travelling village-to-village and offering antigen (Ag) testing to randomly selected households in each village. If an Ag-positive person was identified, treatment was offered to members of all households within 100m-1km of the positive case. All simulated interventions were finished by 2027 and their effectiveness was judged by their 'control probability'-the proportion of simulations in which microfilariae prevalence decreased between 2030 and 2035. Without future intervention, we predict Ag prevalence will rebound. With 3D-MDA, a 90% control probability required an estimated ≥ 4 further rounds with 65% coverage, ≥ 3 rounds with 73% coverage, or ≥ 2 rounds with 85% coverage. While household-based strategies were substantially more testing-intensive than 3D-MDA, they could offer comparable control probabilities with substantially fewer treatments; e.g. three teams aiming to test 50% of households and offering treatment to a 500m radius had approximately the same control probability as three rounds of 73% 3D-MDA, but used < 40% the number of treatments. School- and workplace-based interventions proved ineffective. Regardless of strategy, reducing Ag prevalence below the 1% target threshold recommended by the World Health Organization was a poor indicator of the interruption of LF transmission, highlighting the need to review blanket elimination targets.

Spatial predictive risk mapping of lymphatic filariasis residual hotspots in American Samoa using demographic and environmental factors.

BACKGROUND: American Samoa successfully completed seven rounds of mass drug administration (MDA) for lymphatic filariasis (LF) from 2000-2006. The territory passed the school-based transmission assessment surveys in 2011 and 2015 but failed in 2016. One of the key challenges after the implementation of MDA is the identification of any residual hotspots of transmission. METHOD: Based on data collected in a 2016 community survey in persons aged ≥8 years, Bayesian geostatistical models were developed for LF antigen (Ag), and Wb123, Bm14, Bm33 antibodies (Abs) to predict spatial variation in infection markers using demographic and environmental factors (including land cover, elevation, rainfall, distance to the coastline and distance to streams). RESULTS: In the Ag model, females had a 26.8% (95% CrI: 11.0-39.8%) lower risk of being Ag-positive than males. There was a 2.4% (95% CrI: 1.8-3.0%) increase in the odds of Ag positivity for every year of age. Also, the odds of Ag-positivity increased by 0.4% (95% CrI: 0.1-0.7%) for each 1% increase in tree cover. The models for Wb123, Bm14 and Bm33 Abs showed similar significant associations as the Ag model for sex, age and tree coverage. After accounting for the effect of covariates, the radii of the clusters were larger for Bm14 and Bm33 Abs compared to Ag and Wb123 Ab. The predictive maps showed that Ab-positivity was more widespread across the territory, while Ag-positivity was more confined to villages in the north-west of the main island. CONCLUSION: The findings may facilitate more specific targeting of post-MDA surveillance activities by prioritising those areas at higher risk of ongoing transmission.

Scabies prevalence after ivermectin-based mass drug administration for lymphatic filariasis, Samoa 2018-2019.

BACKGROUND: Scabies is a common skin infestation caused by the Sarcoptes scabei mite. Ivermectin, one of three drugs used in mass drug administration (MDA) for lymphatic filariasis, is also effective for treating scabies. Ivermectin-based MDA was first conducted in Samoa in August 2018, with ivermectin being offered to those aged ≥5 years. Here, we report scabies prevalence in Samoa after MDA. METHODS: We conducted household surveys 1.5-3.5 months (Survey 1) and 6-8 months (Survey 2) after the 2018 MDA in 35 primary sampling units. We conducted clinical examination for scabies-like rash and used International Alliance for the Control of Scabies classification criteria. We estimated scabies prevalence by age, gender and region. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with prevalence. RESULTS: We surveyed 2868 people (499 households) and 2796 people (544 households) aged 0-75 years in Surveys 1 and 2, respectively. Scabies prevalence increased from 2.4% (95% CI 2.1-2.7%) to 4.4% (95% CI 4.0-4.9%) between surveys. Scabies was associated with younger age (0-4 years: aOR 3.5 [2.9-4.2]; 5-15 years: aOR 1.6 [1.4-1.8] compared to ≥16 years), female gender (aOR 1.2 [95% CI 1.1-1.4]; region (aOR range from 1.4 [1.1-1.7] to 2.5 [2.1-3.1] between regions), large households (aOR 2.6 [2.0-3.4] households ≥13), and not taking MDA in 2018 (aOR 1.3 [95% CI 1.1-1.6]). CONCLUSIONS: We found moderate prevalence of scabies in two population-representative surveys conducted within 8 months of the 2018 MDA for lymphatic filariasis. Prevalence appeared to increase between the surveys, and ongoing surveillance is recommended, particularly in young children.

Analysis of malaria surveillance data in Ethiopia: what can be learned from the Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response System?

BACKGROUND: Routine malaria surveillance data is useful for assessing incidence and trends over time, and in stratification for targeting of malaria control. The reporting completeness and potential bias of such data needs assessment. METHODS: Data on 17 malaria indicators were extracted from the Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response System database for July 2004 to June 2009 (Ethiopian calendar reporting years 1997 to 2001). Reporting units were standardized over time with 2007 census populations. The data were analysed to show reporting completeness, variation in risk by reporting unit, and incidence trends for malaria indicators. RESULTS: Reporting completeness, estimated as product of unit-month and health facility reporting, was over 80% until 2009, when it fell to 56% during a period of reorganization in the Ministry of Health. Nationally the average estimated annual incidence of reported total malaria for the calendar years 2005 to 2008 was 23.4 per 1000 persons, and of confirmed malaria was 7.6 per 1,000, with no clear decline in out-patient cases over the time period. Reported malaria in-patient admissions and deaths (averaging 6.4 per 10,000 and 2.3 per 100,000 per year respectively) declined threefold between 2005 and 2009, as did admissions and deaths reported as malaria with severe anaemia. Only 8 of 86 reporting units had average annual estimated incidence of confirmed malaria above 20 per 1,000 persons, while 26 units were consistently below five reported cases per 1,000 persons per year. CONCLUSION: The Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response System functioned well over the time period mid 2004 to the end of 2008. The data suggest that the scale up of interventions has had considerable impact on malaria in-patient cases and mortality, as reported from health centres and hospitals. These trends must be regarded as relative (over space and time) rather than absolute. The data can be used to stratify areas for improved targeting of control efforts to steadily reduce incidence. They also provide a baseline of incidence estimates against which to gauge future progress towards elimination. Inclusion of climate information over this time period and extension of the dataset to more years is needed to clarify the impact of control measures compared to natural cycles on malaria.

Primaquine for reducing Plasmodium falciparum transmission.

BACKGROUND: Mosquitoes become infected with malaria when they ingest gametocyte stages of the parasite from the blood of a human host. Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes are sensitive to the drug primaquine (PQ). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends giving a single dose or short course of PQ alongside primary treatment for people ill with P. falciparum infection to reduce malaria transmission. Gametocytes themselves cause no symptoms, so this intervention does not directly benefit individuals. PQ causes haemolysis in some people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency so may not be safe.   OBJECTIVES: To assess whether a single dose or short course of PQ added to treatments for malaria caused by P. falciparum infection reduces malaria transmission and is safe. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the following databases up to 10 April 2012 for studies: the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register; the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), published in The Cochrane Library; MEDLINE; EMBASE; LILACS; metaRegister of Controlled Trials (mRCT) and the WHO trials search portal using 'malaria*', 'falciparum', and 'primaquine' as search terms. In addition, we searched conference proceedings and reference lists of included studies, and we contacted likely researchers and organizations for relevant trials. SELECTION CRITERIA: Trials of mass treatment of whole populations (or actively detected fever or malaria cases within such populations) with antimalarial drugs, compared to treatment with the same drug plus PQ; or patients with clinical malaria being treated for malaria at health facilities randomized to short course/single dose PQ versus no PQ. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two authors (PMG and HG) independently screened all abstracts, applied inclusion criteria, and abstracted data. We sought data on the effect of PQ on malaria transmission intensity, participant infectiousness, the number of participants with gametocytes, and gametocyte density over time. We stratified results by primary treatment drug as this may modify any PQ effect. We calculated the area under the curve (AUC) for gametocyte density over time for comparisons for which data were available, and also sought data on haematologic and other adverse effects. We used GRADE guidelines to assess evidence quality, and this is reflected in the wording of the results: high quality ("PQ reduces ...."); moderate quality ("PQ probably reduces ..."); low quality ("PQ may reduce...."); and very low quality ("we don't know if PQ reduces...."). MAIN RESULTS: We included 11 individually randomized trials, with a total of 1776 individuals. The 11 trials included 20 comparisons with partner drugs, which included chloroquine (CQ), sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP), mefloquine (MQ), quinine (QN), artesunate (AS), and a variety of artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs). For G6PD deficiency, studies either did not test (one study), tested and included all (one study), included only G6PD deficient (one study), excluded G6PD deficient (two studies), or made no comment (six studies).None of the trials we included assessed effects on malaria transmission (incidence, prevalence, or entomological inoculation rate (EIR)) in the trial area.With non-artemisinin drug regimens, PQ may reduce the infectiousness to mosquitoes of individuals treated, based on one small study with large effects (Risk Ratio (RR) 0.06 on day 8 after treatment, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0 to 0.89; low quality evidence). Participants who received PQ had fewer circulating gametocytes up to day 43 (log(10) AUC relative decrease from 24.3 to 27.1%, one study (two comparisons), moderate quality evidence); and there were 38% fewer people with gametocytes on day 8 (RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.51 to 0.76, four studies (five comparisons), moderate quality evidence). We did not identify any study that looked for effects of the drug on haemolytic anaemia.With artemisinin-based drug regimens, we do not know if PQ influences infectiousness to mosquitoes, as no study has examined this directly. PQ probably reduces infectiousness, based on reduction in log(10) AUC (relative decrease range from 26.1% to 87.5%, two studies (six comparisons), moderate quality evidence); and reduces by 88% the number of participants with gametocytes on day 8 (RR 0.12, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.20, four studies (eight comparisons), moderate quality evidence).When used with artemisinin-based regimens, we do not know if PQ results in haemolytic anaemia; one trial reported percent change in mean haemoglobin against baseline, and for the PQ group this indicated a significantly greater drop at day 8 in those given PQ (very low quality evidence). Overall, the safety of PQ used in single dose or short course was poorly evaluated.  AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: We do not know whether PQ added to treatment regimens for patients with P. falciparum infection reduces transmission of malaria. In individual patients, it reduces gametocyte prevalence and density. In practical terms, even if PQ results in large reductions in gametocytes in people being treated for malaria, there is no reliable evidence that this will reduce transmission in a malaria-endemic community, where many people are infected but have no symptoms and are unlikely to be treated. Since PQ is acting as a monotherapy against gametocytes, there is a risk of the parasite developing resistance to the drug. In terms of harms, there is insufficient evidence from trials to know whether the drug can be used safely in this way in populations where G6PD deficiency occurs.In light of these doubts about safety, and lack of evidence of any benefit in reducing transmission, countries should question whether to continue to use PQ routinely in primary treatment of malaria. Further synthesis of observational data on safety and new trials may help elucidate a role for PQ in malaria elimination, or in situations where most infected individuals are symptomatic and receive treatment.

Modelling lymphatic filariasis elimination in American Samoa: GEOFIL predicts need for new targets and six rounds of mass drug administration.

BACKGROUND: As part of the global effort to eliminate the debilitating mosquito-borne disease lymphatic filariasis (LF), seven rounds of two-drug (diethylcarbamazine and albendazole) mass drug administration (MDA) were conducted in American Samoa over 2000-2006. However subsequent surveys demonstrated ongoing transmission prompting further rounds of three-drug (diethylcarbamazine, albendazole, and ivermectin) MDA starting in 2018. METHODS: We extend GEOFIL, a spatially-explicit agent-based model of LF transmission to predict the probability and timing of the local elimination or resurgence of LF for different MDA scenarios starting in 2018: two-drug vs. three-drug MDA, two to seven annual rounds, and population coverage rates of 55-75%. We developed an interactive visualisation comparing the effect of MDA strategies on different outcomes. RESULTS: At least six annual rounds of three-drug MDA treating 75% of the population were required to achieve LF elimination in American Samoa by 2035 in > 50% of simulations. In scenarios where MDA did not achieve elimination, prevalence doubled approximately every three years, even if MDA reduced antigen prevalence to <1% (the target recommended by the World Health Organisation). Prevalence in six- and seven-year-old children was approximately one quarter of the prevalence in the general population. CONCLUSION: The three rounds of three-drug MDA conducted in 2018, 2019, and 2021 may have come close to WHO targets but are unlikely to interrupt LF transmission in American Samoa without further interventions. The recommended post-MDA surveillance strategy of testing primarily six and seven-year-old children will delay detection of resurgence compared to population representative surveys. The recommended elimination targets (reducing antigen prevalence below 0.5%, 1%, or 2%) may not be sufficient to interrupt transmission in countries with LF epidemiology like American Samoa. Alternative surveillance strategies and interventions designed to identify and eliminate spatially localized residual transmission may need to be considered. Interactive visualisations may assist decision-makers to choose locally appropriate strategies.

Lymphatic filariasis in 2016 in American Samoa: Identifying clustering and hotspots using non-spatial and three spatial analytical methods.

BACKGROUND: American Samoa completed seven rounds of mass drug administration from 2000-2006 as part of the Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (LF). However, resurgence was confirmed in 2016 through WHO-recommended school-based transmission assessment survey and a community-based survey. This paper uses data from the 2016 community survey to compare different spatial and non-spatial methods to characterise clustering and hotspots of LF. METHOD: Non-spatial clustering of infection markers (antigen [Ag], microfilaraemia [Mf], and antibodies (Ab [Wb123, Bm14, Bm33]) was assessed using intra-cluster correlation coefficients (ICC) at household and village levels. Spatial dependence, clustering and hotspots were examined using semivariograms, Kulldorf's scan statistic and Getis-Ord Gi* statistics based on locations of surveyed households. RESULTS: The survey included 2671 persons (750 households, 730 unique locations in 30 villages). ICCs were higher at household (0.20-0.69) than village levels (0.10-0.30) for all infection markers. Semivariograms identified significant spatial dependency for all markers (range 207-562 metres). Using Kulldorff's scan statistic, significant spatial clustering was observed in two previously known locations of ongoing transmission: for all markers in Fagali'i and all Abs in Vaitogi. Getis-Ord Gi* statistic identified hotspots of all markers in Fagali'i, Vaitogi, and Pago Pago-Anua areas. A hotspot of Ag and Wb123 Ab was identified around the villages of Nua-Seetaga-Asili. Bm14 and Bm33 Ab hotspots were seen in Maleimi and Vaitogi-Ili'ili-Tafuna. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated the utility of different non-spatial and spatial methods for investigating clustering and hotspots, the benefits of using multiple infection markers, and the value of triangulating results between methods.

Potential use of antibodies to provide an earlier indication of lymphatic filariasis resurgence in post-mass drug ad ministration surveillance in American Samoa.

BACKGROUND: Under the Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (LF), American Samoa conducted 7 rounds of mass drug administration (MDA) between 2000 and 2006. The territory passed transmission assessment surveys (TASs) in 2011 (TAS-1) and 2015 (TAS-2). In 2016, the territory failed TAS-3, indicating resurgence. This study aims to determine if antibodies (Abs) may have provided a timelier indication of LF resurgence in American Samoa. METHODS: We examined school-level antigen (Ag) and Ab status (presence/absence of Ag- and Ab-positive children) and prevalence of single and combined Ab responses to Wb123, Bm14, and Bm33 Ags at each TAS. Pearson chi-square test and logistic regression were used to examine associations between school-level Ab prevalence in TAS-1 and TAS-2 and school-level Ag status in TAS-3. RESULTS: Schools with higher prevalence of Wb123 Ab in TAS-2 had higher odds of being Ag-positive in TAS-3 (odds ratio [OR] 24.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.2-512.7). Schools that were Ab-positive for WB123 plus Bm14, Bm33, or both Bm14 and Bm33 in TAS-2 had higher odds of being Ag-positive in TAS-3 (OR 16.0-24.5). CONCLUSION: Abs could provide earlier signals of resurgence and enable a timelier response. The promising role of Abs in surveillance after MDA and decision making should be further investigated in other settings.