Profiles of subjective well-being among people living with HIV during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The aim of our study was to examine subjective well-being (SWB) profiles and their sociodemographic and clinical correlates among people living with HIV (PLWH) during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: The participants were 663 PLWH undergoing antiretroviral treatment. Their SWB was evaluated using the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Sociodemographic and clinical covariates, together with COVID-19 distress, were assessed with a self-report survey. RESULTS: Latent profile analysis revealed four SWB profiles: average negative, average positive, flourishing and languishing. The languishing profile was the worse in terms of values of SWB components and had a relative overrepresentation of PLWH who were single, without a university degree, and not employed for money. The pandemic-related distress was positively related to being a member of average negative and languishing profiles. Gender and age had no significant effect on either profile membership or directly on the SWB components. CONCLUSION: It seems that in the context of chronic illness and socially shared stressful circumstances, which was the COVID-19 pandemic, the components of SWB among PLWH developed rather congruent profiles. Sociodemographic, but not clinical characteristics were found to be significant correlates of belonging to obtained SWB profiles in this sample. The most striking effect with this regards was obtained for the members of the languishing profile, defined by the co-occurrence of low positive affect, low satisfaction with life, and high negative affect.

Profiling Hesitancy to COVID-19 Vaccinations in Six European Countries: Behavioral, Attitudinal and Demographic Determinants.

Vaccination hesitancy is an important barrier for the effective control of the COVID-19 pandemic. Identifying determinants of COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy is essential in order to reduce mortality rates. Further, given the variability of the factors and the different recommendations used in each country, it is important to conduct cross-country research to profile individuals who are hesitant toward COVID-19 vaccinations. This cross-sectional study aimed to examine cross-country differences and the behavioral, attitudinal and demographic characteristics of vaccine hesitant individuals. Adults living in six European countries (Cyprus, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, and Spain) were eligible to participate. A total of 832 individuals completed the online survey, with 17.9% reporting being hesitant to COVID-19 vaccination. Vaccine accepters were significantly older (M = 38.9, SD = 14.3), more educated (master/postgraduate studies) and lived in a place with a higher number of residents (>500,000 people) compared to those hesitant to COVID-19 vaccination. Discriminant analysis confirmed that the hesitant profile includes a person of younger age, living alone in smaller communities, and without children. Additionally, hesitant participants reported COVID-19-specific characteristics such as lower institutional trust, less adherence to COVID-19 protective behaviors and higher pandemic fatigue. When tackling COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy both socio-demographic and behavioral/attitudinal aspects should be taken into account. Stakeholders are advised to implement targeted vaccination programs while at the same time building trust with population illness cognitions addressed in order to reduce hesitancy rates. Further, stakeholders and public health authorities in each country are suggested to target interventions according to different population characteristics as behavioral and attitudinal determinants of COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy differed between countries.

Daily emotional inertia and long-term subjective well-being among people living with HIV.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to verify if subjective well-being (SWB) modifies the autoregressive effect of daily emotions and if this emotional inertia predicts long-term changes in SWB among people living with HIV (PLWH). METHODS: The 131 participants had medically confirmed diagnoses of HIV and were undergoing antiretroviral therapy. They assessed their SWB (satisfaction with life, negative affect, positive affect) twice with an interval of one year. They also took part in a five-day online diary study six months from their baseline SWB assessment and reported their daily negative and positive emotions. RESULTS: Results showed that baseline SWB did not modify the emotional carryover effect from one to another. Additionally, after control for baseline SWB, emotional inertia did not predict SWB one year later. However, such an effect was noted for the mean values of daily reported emotions, indicating their unique predictive power over SWB itself. CONCLUSIONS: This may suggest that emotional inertia does not necessarily provide better information than more straightforward measures of affective functioning.

Personality types and subjective well-being among people living with HIV: a latent profile analysis.

PURPOSE: We examined whether three types of personality (i.e. resilient, undercontrolled and overcontrolled) based on the Big Five personality taxonomy could be replicated among people living with HIV (PLWH). We also aimed to establish significant sociodemographic and clinical covariates of profile membership and verify whether these profiles are related to the subjective well-being (SWB) of participants. METHODS: 770 PLWH participated in this study. The Big Five personality traits were evaluated with the NEO-FFI questionnaire. SWB was operationalised by satisfaction with life (Satisfaction with Life Scale) and positive and negative affects (PANAS-X). Moreover, sociodemographic and clinical variables were collected. RESULTS: Latent profile analysis was used to identify personality types among participants. Instead of the three profiles most frequently reported in the literature, we identified a four-profile model (the resilient, undercontrolled, overcontrolled and the average profile type) as the best fit to the data. These profiles did not differ with regard to sociodemographic and clinical covariates. However, significant differences in SWB across profiles were noted, i.e. the highest SWB was observed among members of the resilient profile, and overcontrollers and undercontrollers were almost equally regarded as second best in SWB level, whereas the average profile consists of PLWH with the worst SWB. CONCLUSION: Identifying personality types in clinical settings enables more comprehensive understanding of interrelations between personality and health. Regarding PLWH, the typological approach may shed new light on ambiguous results devoted to the role of personality in well-being of these patients.

Positive and Negative Affect Change among People Living with HIV: a One-Year Prospective Study.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the heterogeneity of changes in affective states, i.e., positive (PA) and negative (NA) affect, as well as the sociodemographic and clinical covariates of these changes among people living with HIV (PLWH) in a 1-year prospective study. METHOD: Participants were 141 ambulatory patients (15% female) with a confirmed diagnosis of HIV infection who were undergoing antiretroviral treatment. Their affective states were assessed three times, with 6-month intervals, using the positive and negative general affect scale (PANAS-X). Sociodemographic (gender, age, relationship status, education, employment) and clinical variables (CD4 count assessed via self-report, HIV/AIDS status, time since HIV diagnosis and antiretroviral treatment duration) were also obtained. RESULTS: Heterogeneity of changes was present only for NA, whereas PA decreased gradually in the whole sample. Time since diagnosis was unrelated to baseline affect levels as well as affect level changes. Additionally, the trajectories of NA and PA were independent of each other. The significant correlates of trajectories were gender and CD4 counts, both baseline CD4 levels and CD4 changes. CONCLUSION: This study adds to the literature by describing affect changes among PLWH and identifying potential correlates of these changes, particularly CD4 count and gender. As such, these findings point to the potential clinical significance of further research on the roles of these variables.

Consistency of health-related quality of life among people living with HIV: Latent statetrait analysis.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine the consistency of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among people living with HIV (PLWH) by breaking down the variance of repeated HRQoL measures into trait, state, and method components and to test the stability of HRQoL over time. In addition, we wanted to examine whether HRQoL trait components are related to personality traits, while controlling for selected socio-medical variables. METHODS: Three assessments were performed with a six-month lag on each assessment. Each participant filled out a World Health Organization (WHO) Quality of Life-BREF to assess HRQoL and a NEO-FFI to measure Big Five personality traits. Overall, 82 participants out of 141 (58.2% of the initial sample) participated in all the assessments. RESULTS: The HRQoL among PLWH represented a stable trait to a somewhat greater extent than a situational variability, although the proportions were domain and time variant. More specifically, psychological domain appeared to be the most consistent, whereas social domain appeared to be the most prone to situational influences. The trait component of HRQoL was positively related to being in a relationship, being employed, and being extraverted, and negatively related to neuroticism, which altogether explained 26% of the trait variance. CONCLUSIONS: HRQoL among PLWH is rather distinct from personality and socio-medical data, which indicates its uniqueness in a clinical practise. Thus, there is a need for a more comprehensive assessment of HRQoL among this patient group to capture an additional source of variance in this important theoretical construct.

Maladaptive Schemas Among People Addicted to Alcohol: Heterogeneity but not Specificity?

AIMS: Early maladaptive schemas described by Young theoretically underlie the development of psychopathology, including substance use. The key assumption is that the schemas do not act in isolation but create configurations that are, at least to a certain extent, distinctive for specific disorders. Thus, the aim of the current study was to examine whether a schema profile specific to alcohol addiction can be identified when compared to profiles obtained from a non-clinical sample. SHORT SUMMARY: Early maladaptive schemas are cognitive and behavioral patterns related to a wide spectrum of psychopathology, including alcohol addiction. However, the assumption that the configuration of schemas varies across disorders still needs verification. In the sample of alcohol-addicted people, only heterogeneity was noted, without any specific profile that may differentiate them from healthy adults. METHODS: The study included two samples: 108 alcohol-dependent patients beginning stationary treatment and 1529 healthy adults. All participants completed the Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form 3 (YSQ-S3). RESULTS: Multiple-group latent profile analysis was used to compare clinical and non-clinical sample profiles. In both groups, four profiles were identified. These were similar in terms of schema means and variances across groups, differing only in size. Specifically, people addicted to alcohol were over-represented in the highest profile and under-represented in the lowest profile. Also, the only distinguishable difference between profiles was their height, not shape. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate a heterogeneity but not specificity of maladaptive schema profiles within the studied sample of people addicted to alcohol.

Relationship between daily pain and affect in women with rheumatoid arthritis: lower optimism as a vulnerability factor.

The aim of the study was to examine the moderating effect of optimism on the relationship between daily pain-daily affect. Fifty-four female patients with rheumatoid arthritis completed self-report measures of optimism (once), daily pain and daily positive and negative affect for 7 consecutive days during hospitalization. Results of multilevel random coefficients modeling demonstrated a significant cross-level interaction for daily negative affect only. Simple slopes analysis revealed that low optimism was related to a stronger positive relationship between daily pain and daily negative affect, whereas this effect was insignificant for higher optimism. High optimism was also related to higher daily positive affect, regardless of pain level. These findings suggest that low optimism may be a vulnerability factor in the daily pain-daily affect relationship rather than high optimism acting as a protective factor.

Coping profiles and subjective well-being among people living with HIV: less intensive coping corresponds with better well-being.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between coping strategies and subjective well-being (SWB) among people living with HIV (PLWH) using the latent profile analysis (LPA) with control for socio-medical covariates. METHODS: The sample comprised five hundred and thirty people (N = 530) with a confirmed diagnosis of HIV+. The study was cross-sectional with SWB operationalized by satisfaction with life (Satisfaction with Life Scale) and positive and negative affect (PANAS-X). Coping with stress was measured by the Brief COPE Inventory, enriched by several items that assessed rumination and enhancement of positive emotional states. Additionally, the relevant socio-medical variables were collected. RESULTS: The one-step model of LPA revealed the following: (1) a solution with five different coping profiles suited the data best; (2) socio-medical covariates, except for education, were not related to the profiles' membership. Further analysis with SWB as a distal outcome showed that higher intensity coping profiles have significantly worse SWB when compared with lower intensity coping profiles. However, the lowest SWB was noted for mixed intensity coping profile (high adaptive/low maladaptive). CONCLUSIONS: The person-centered approach adopted in this study informs about the heterogeneity of disease-related coping among PLWH and its possible reactive character, as the highest SWB was observed among participants with the lowest intensity of coping.

Hitting rock bottom? Resource loss as a predictor of alcoholism treatment completion.

Background Efforts to better understand the phenomenon of the 'bottom', the beginning of the process of turning away from alcohol, are important for both theoretical and practical goals. The conservation of resources theory by Hobfoll may represent a suitable framework to base these attempts around. Aim The aim of the study was to examine the role of resource loss in completing alcoholism treatment on the basis of Hobfoll's conservation of resources theory. Methods The study included 86 patients undergoing inpatient alcoholism treatment. An assessment of resource loss and gain during the previous year, as well as of the decisional balance regarding the pros and cons of drinking alcohol, took place at the beginning of therapy. Results The results of hierarchical binary logistic regression confirmed that resource loss was the only significant predictor of therapy completion, after adjustment for decisional balance, demographics and basic clinical data. Additionally, gender moderated the relationship between resource gain and therapy completion: while an increase in gain was related to a decreased chance of completing therapy in men, the opposite effect was noted in women. Conclusions Resource loss has more influence than decisional balance in predicting therapy completion, which can be translated into clinically valid recommendations based on gender differences.

Meaning-focused coping, pain, and affect: a diary study of hospitalized women with rheumatoid arthritis.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between affective state, pain, and coping in hospitalized women with rheumatoid arthritis, including both between- and within-person perspectives. METHODS: Participants were 95 female patients between 24 and 82 years of age (M = 50.91; SD = 13.80). For three consecutive days, they rated each night their state affect (positive and negative), pain level, and coping strategies (emotion-, problem- and meaning-focused ones). Relations among variables were tested with a multilevel approach with time included as a covariate. RESULTS: Within-person meaning-focused coping suppressed the negative pain effect on emotional state, but only for positive affect (Sobel's z = 2.07, p = .04). Moderators of the pain-affect relationship were between-person differences in pain level (B = -.23, SE = .08, t = -2.884, p = .004) and in meaning-focused coping (B = -.63, SE = .20, t = -2.097, p = .04). Specifically, suppression was significant only for patients who reported lower than sample average pain levels and for patients who reported lower than sample average use of meaning-focused strategies. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicated that meaning-focused coping can be a crucial strategy for keeping daily positive affect in the face of chronic pain and how this effect is modified by interindividual differences. Even if restricted to the specific context, it may inform an intervention for hospitalized women with rheumatoid arthritis.

Positive and negative aspects of well-being as correlates of breast reconstruction decision.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to explore the role of positive and negative aspects of well-being in a breast reconstruction decision, described in terms of the trans-theoretical model of change (TTM). METHODS: The study comprised 216 women after total mastectomy in the cross-sectional design. The positive aspects of well-being were measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale; the negative aspects were assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (T-Anxiety scale). RESULTS: The multinomial logistic regression analyses were implemented, and the action stage was chosen as a relevant category. McFadden's pseudo R-squared for positive, negative and combined aspects of well-being models equalled 0.28, 0.13 and 0.27, respectively. For the first model, the differential effects were observed for well-being, age and relationship status (54 % correctly classified cases), whereas for the model with negative aspects-only age and well-being (44 % correctly classified cases). For a model combining two aspects of well-being, the pattern was similar to the one observed for positive well-being (53 % correctly classified cases). The likelihood of classifying women in the action stage rather than in the pre-contemplation stage was determined by three variables: being in a relationship, better well-being and younger age. For the contemplation stage, the same relations were obtained for well-being and age. Finally, for the preparation stage, the well-being effect disappeared. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that positive rather than negative aspects of well-being, after control for sociodemographic variables, may be significant correlates of breast reconstruction decision.

Discriminant validity of sense of coherence vs trait anxiety in explaining emotional state in an experimental task.

Prior work has indicated that sense of coherence and trait anxiety are overlapping constructs. This study assessed this overlap in explaining emotional states during a task situation. Participants were 150 students, randomly assigned to a control and an experimental group. The experimental task was to put a jigsaw puzzle together under time pressure. Sense of coherence (SOC) and trait anxiety were measured at baseline. The dependent variables, positive and negative emotions, were measured three times: at baseline, soon before the task, and after finishing the task. As expected, at each measurement point correlations between emotional state and sense of coherence did not differ significantly from the absolute values of the relevant correlations with trait anxiety. Also, from a repeated-measures perspective, for Low SOC vs High trait anxiety and also for High SOC vs Low trait anxiety, similar explanatory power for changes in emotional state was noted. The results support doubts in literature about insufficient discriminant validity of the Orientation to Life Questionnaire as a measure of the salutogenic construct.

Daily emotional dynamics and changes in posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic depreciation among people living with HIV.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic growth (PTG), and its negative reflection, posttraumatic depreciation (PTD), are two aspects of response to trauma. This study explores whether daily emotional dynamics (inertia and innovation) can translate into positive versus negative changes among people living with HIV (PLWH) in the form of long-term changes in PTG or PTD. METHODS: The study combined a classical longitudinal approach with two assessments of PTG and PTD within one year and a measurement burst diary design with three weekly electronic diaries. In total, 249 PLWH participated in this study, filling out an expanded version of the Posttraumatic Growth and Depreciation Inventory (PTGDI-X) and a survey of sociodemographic and clinical data. In addition, they assessed their positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) at the end of each day in online diaries using a shortened version of the PANAS-X. RESULTS: Although we observed stable significant inertia and innovation of PA and NA across all bursts, these parameters of daily emotional dynamics were unrelated to the longitudinal changes in PTG and PTD. The same null results were also noted for the average levels of NA and PA. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated the relative stability of emotion regulation in PLWH over the course of one year and contributed to understanding its dynamic mechanisms in terms of trait-like characteristics. The null result of the relationship between the PTG and PTD change might suggest a weak role of emotion regulation in shaping these trajectories as well as a lack of validity of the PTG/PTD measures.

HIV/AIDS stigma accumulation among people living with HIV: a role of general and relative minority status.

The main objective of the study was to investigate the relationship between selected sociodemographic factors (i.e. sexual orientation, gender and AIDS status), and the level of HIV/AIDS stigma among people living with HIV (PLWH). The participants were 663 adults with a medically confirmed diagnosis of HIV infection, undergoing antiretroviral treatment. Their level of HIV/AIDS stigma was assessed with the Berger HIV Stigma Scale, and relevant sociodemographic and clinical data were obtained using a self-report survey. The main effect was revealed only for sexual orientation and total stigma; those with heterosexual orientation declared higher levels of total stigma than those with other sexual orientations. For the subscales, significant results were obtained only for disclosure concerns. Namely, for the interaction of gender and sexual orientation, the highest level of disclosure stigma was declared by heterosexual women, while there was no such relationship for men. This result was further modified when AIDS diagnosis was added to the interaction. There is a cumulative effect of PLWH minority statuses, rather than main effects of each status individually. Thus, each minority status should be analysed from at least two perspectives, general (i.e., compared to the general population) and relative (i.e., compared to the population in question).

Depression during the COVID-19 pandemic among people living with HIV: Are low HIV/AIDS stigma and high perceived emotional support protective resources?

This study has two objectives: first, to examine changes in depressive symptoms among people living with HIV (PLWH) during the COVID-19 pandemic and, second, to verify the role of HIV/AIDS stigma and perceived emotional support (PES) in the heterogeneity of these changes. The participants were 392 people with a medical diagnosis of HIV who have undergone antiretroviral therapy. Depression was measured at three time points with 6-month intervals using the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). PES was evaluated with the Berlin Social Support Scales, and HIV/AIDS-related stigma was assessed with the Berger HIV Stigma Scale. Latent growth class modelling identified four trajectories of depression over the study period: three stable (very high, high, and very low) and one increasing. Both the very high and high stable trajectories had baseline values above the CES-D cut-off point for depression, suggesting that 57.6% of the sample was likely to be diagnosed with depression. After controlling for sociodemographic and clinical variables, stigma and PES were found to be significant covariates of the obtained trajectories; however, they did not protect against an increase in depression symptoms. There was no overall increase in depression symptoms among the PLWH participants during the pandemic, but this change in depression symptoms was heterogeneous. We observed the potential development of depression in initially well-functioning individuals despite their personal resources differing only slightly from those who remained resilient.

Daily stigma and daily emotional well-being among people living with HIV: Testing a buffering hypothesis of social support during the COVID-19 pandemic.

This study examined the relationship between daily perceived stigma and daily emotional well-being among people living with HIV/AIDS during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, a buffering effect of perceived emotional support on this relationship was verified. The participants were 133 patients with a medically confirmed diagnosis of HIV infection. Data were collected using online diaries completed every evening for five consecutive weekdays in three bursts separated by 6 months. Dynamic multilevel analyses showed a significant positive autoregressive effect for daily stigma in each burst. Additionally, increased stigma predicts increased negative affect and decreased positive affect the next day. However, these effects differed across bursts. Thus, to some extent, daily HIV/AIDS stigma was found to predict a decrease in affective well-being the next day. The buffering effect of perceived emotional support reduced this decline but was also time-limited, probably because of the later established direction in these relationships at the individual level and/or because of changes in the course of the pandemic. The results provide insights on the role of daily stigma in shaping affective well-being, suggesting that it may be a significant source of short-term negative emotional consequences for PWLH.

The Polish adaptation of the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT-PL) by Schaufeli et al. / Polska adaptacja Metody Oceny Wypalenia Zawodowego (BAT-PL) autorstwa Schaufeliego i wspólpracowników.

OBJECTIVES: The study aimed to present the Polish version of the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT-PL) by W. Schaufeli et al. and to assess its validity and reliability. The tool measures the core symptoms of burnout (BAT-C): exhaustion, mental distance, cognitive and emotional impairment, and its secondary symptoms (BAT-S): psychosomatic complaints and psychological distress. METHODS: The participants were 255 nursing staff members. The construct validity was assessed with a one-point job satisfaction scale, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale by Schaufeli et al. and the Job-related Affective Well-being Scale by van Katwyk et al. RESULTS: The results of the confirmatory factor analysis supported an assumed bi-factor structure. This applies to both BAT-C as the four core symptoms and a general factor and BAT-S as a set of two secondary symptoms and a general factor. Both scales were strongly correlated with one another and differed from other measures of job-related well-being (job satisfaction, work engagement and negative emotions). The values of Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability indicated BAT-PL as a reliable measurement tool. CONCLUSIONS: BAT-PL by W. Schaufeli et al. has good psychometric characteristics to be used in research on burnout and further validated in clinical practice.

Eudaimonic and Hedonic Psychological Well-Being among Parents of Children with Cancer before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparative Cross-Sectional Study.

The main aim of this study was to analyze the eudaimonic and hedonic well-being of parents of children with cancer by considering the role of a global stressor-the COVID-19 pandemic. One group of parents was assessed during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the other was assessed before it occurred. It was hypothesized that there may be a cumulative effect of stress, with parents expressing lower well-being during the pandemic due to the accumulation of stress related to their child's illness and the pandemic. In total, 310 parents participated in the study. Following propensity score matching, 111 pairs were established. The results of the comparative analyses did not support the hypothesis, as the groups did not differ significantly in their reported levels of either eudaimonic (F (1.93) = 0.11, p = 0.75, ηp2= 0.001) or hedonic well-being (F (1.100) = 0.02, p = 0.89, ηp2 = 0.0001). These findings showed a limited effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the well-being of parents of children with cancer. The oncological disease of a child is likely to be the central and the strongest factor for the parents, meaning that an additional, global stressor does not cause deeper exacerbation of their well-being.

Psychometric properties of the Stress Mindset Measure (SMM) in the Polish population.

PURPOSE: The goal of the research was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Polish adaptation of the Stress Mindset Measure (SMM; general version, SMM-G, and specific version, SMM-S). METHODS: Study 1 was an online survey conducted among 1651 adults (81% women, aged 18-84 years). To assess the theoretical validity of the SMM, the following constructs were also measured: Big Five personality dimensions, positive orientation, self-control, perceived stress at work, depressiveness, assessment of one's own health, and ego-resiliency. Study 2 was a test-retest reliability measurement and took place 10 months later among 344 participants. RESULTS: A factor validity was examined using exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory (CFA) factor analysis. EFA revealed a two-factor structure for the SMM-G and a one-factor structure for the SMM-S. However, these models obtained unsatisfactory goodness-of-fit indices in the CFA. Among the alternative models, the four-factor hierarchical model was best fitted to the data for both the SMM-G (RMSEA = .038, CFI = .996, TLI = .985) and the SMM-S (RMSEA = .041, CFI = .996, TLI = .990). These results were supported in the test-retest sample (SMM-G: RMSEA = .066, CFI = .990, TLI = .968; SMM-S: RMSEA = .056, CFI = .994, TLI = .983). Thus, four lower-order factors were identified: General, Health and Vitality, Performance and Productivity, Learning and Growth. The reliability of the overall general and specific indices measured with Cronbach's alpha was high and repeatable in both studies (Study 1: SMM-G α = .88; SMM-S α = .91; Study 2 (SMM-G, α = .87; SMM-S, α = .91). The stability for the SMM-G was satisfactory (r = .62; p < .001), and moderate for SMM-S (r = .46, p < .001). The theoretical validity analysis showed low (< |.40|) correlations in the expected directions with the majority of the selected tools. CONCLUSION: The Polish adaptation of the SMM has very good psychometric properties. However, the unidimensional character of the original scale is not confirmed, which was also the case in other existing adaptations. The analyses in a sample several times larger than in previous studies revealed a greater complexity of the construct, identifying one higher-order factor and four lower-order factors.