Rewarming Young Children After Drowning-Associated Hypothermia and Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest: Analysis Using the CAse REport Guideline.

OBJECTIVES: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is recommended in adults with drowning-associated hypothermia and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). Our experience of managing a drowned 2-year-old girl with hypothermia (23°C) and cardiac arrest (58 min) prompted this summary using the CAse REport (CARE) guideline to address the question of optimal rewarming procedure in such patients. DESIGN/PATIENTS: Following the CARE guideline, we identified 24 reports in the "PubMed database" describing children less than or equal to 6 years old with a temperature less than or equal to 28°C who had been rewarmed using conventional intensive care ± ECMO. Adding our patient, we were able to analyze a total of 57 cases. MAIN RESULTS: The two groups (ECMO vs non-ECMO) differed with respect to submersion time, pH and potassium but not age, temperature or duration of cardiac arrest. However, 44 of 44 in the ECMO group were pulseless on arrival versus eight of 13 in the non-ECMO group. Regarding survival, 12 of 13 children (92%) undergoing conventional rewarming survived compared with 18 of 44 children (41%) undergoing ECMO. Among survivors, 11 of 12 children (91%) in the conventional group and 14 of 18 (77%) in the ECMO group had favorable outcome. We failed to identify any correlation between "rewarming rate" and "outcome." CONCLUSIONS: In this summary analysis, we conclude that conventional therapy should be initiated for drowned children with OHCA. However, if this therapy does not result in return of spontaneous circulation, a discussion of withdrawal of intensive care might be prudent when core temperature has reached 34°C. We suggest further work is needed using an international registry.

Subclinical Tuberculosis in Children: Diagnostic Strategies for Identification Reported in a 6-year National Prospective Surveillance Study.

BACKGROUND: Subclinical tuberculosis (TB) is well recognized and defined as a disease state with absent or nonrecognized symptoms. The study identifies factors associated with subclinical TB and diagnostic strategies in a low-burden, high-resource country. METHODS: Data were collected between December 2013 and November 2019 through the Swiss Pediatric Surveillance Unit (SPSU). Children with culture/molecular confirmed TB, or who were treated with ≥3 antimycobacterial drugs, were included. RESULTS: A total of 138 (80%) children with TB disease were included in the final analysis, of which 43 (31%) were subclinical. The median age of children with subclinical compared to symptomatic TB was 3.7 (interquartile range [IQR] 2.2-7) and 9.7 (IQR 2.7-14.3) years, respectively (P = .003). The cause of investigation for TB was recorded in 31/43 (72.1%) of children with subclinical TB and included contact exposure in 25 (80.6%) of children. In children with subclinical TB, diagnosis was made by a combination of the following abnormal/confirming results: culture/molecular + immunodiagnostic + chest radiography in 12 (27.9%) cases, immunodiagnostic + chest radiography in 19 (44.2%) cases, culture/molecular + chest radiography in 2 (4.7%) cases, culture + immunodiagnostic in 1 (2.3%) case, chest radiography only in 8 (18.6%) cases, and immunodiagnostic only in 1 (2.3%) case. CONCLUSIONS: A notable proportion of children with TB had subclinical disease. This highlights the importance of non-symptom-based TB case finding in exposed children and refugees from high-TB-prevalence settings. TB screening in these asymptomatic children should therefore include a combination of immunodiagnostic testing and imaging followed by culture and molecular testing.

Developmental respiratory physiology.

Various developmental aspects of respiratory physiology put infants and young children at an increased risk of respiratory failure, which is associated with a higher rate of critical incidents during anesthesia. The immaturity of control of breathing in infants is reflected by prolonged central apneas and periodic breathing, and an increased risk of apneas after anesthesia. The physiology of the pediatric upper and lower airways is characterized by a higher flow resistance and airway collapsibility. The increased chest wall compliance and reduced gas exchange surface of the lungs reduce the pulmonary oxygen reserve vis-à-vis a higher metabolic oxygen demand, which causes more rapid oxygen desaturation when ventilation is compromised. This review describes the various developmental aspects of respiratory physiology and summarizes anesthetic implications.

Pediatric Tuberculosis Disease during Years of High Refugee Arrivals: A 6-Year National Prospective Surveillance Study.

BACKGROUND: In Europe, surveillance and monitoring of pediatric tuberculosis (TB) remains important, particularly in the light of migration in recent years. The aim of the study was to evaluate incidence rates of childhood TB and detailed diagnostic pathways and treatment. METHODS: Data were collected through the Swiss Pediatric Surveillance Unit (SPSU) from December 2013 to November 2019. Monthly -notifications are obtained from the 33 pediatric hospitals in the SPSU, and a detailed questionnaire was sent out upon notification. Inclusion criteria were children and adolescents aged up to 15 years with culture- or molecular-confirmed TB disease or for whom a treatment with ≥3 antimycobacterial drugs had been initiated. Data were compared with age-matched notification data from the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health (FOPH). RESULTS: Of the 172 cases notified to SPSU, a detailed questionnaire was returned for 161 (93%) children, of which 139 met the inclusion criteria. Reasons for exclusion were age >15 years, double reporting, and not fulfilling the criteria for TB disease. During the same time period, 172 pediatric TB cases were reported to the FOPH, resulting in an incidence of 2.1 per 100,000, ranging from 1.4 to 2.8 per year, without a clear trend over time. In the 64 (46.0%) foreign-born children, incidence rates were higher and peaked in 2016, with 13.7 per 100,000 (p = 0.018). The median interval between arrival in Switzerland and TB diagnosis was 5 (IQR 1-21) months, and 80% were diagnosed within 24 months of arrival. In 58% of the cases, TB disease was confirmed by culture or molecular assays. Age >10 years, presence of fever, or weight loss were independent factors associated with confirmed TB. CONCLUSION: The annual pediatric TB incidence rate only varied among foreign-born children and was highest in 2016 when refugee influx peaked in Europe. Importantly, most foreign-born children with TB were diagnosed within 2 years after arrival in Switzerland. Thus, the early period after arrival in Switzerland is associated with a higher risk of TB disease in children, and this should be considered for screening guidance in refugees.

Pediatric Airway Endoscopy: Recommendations of the Society for Pediatric Pneumology.

For many decades, pediatric bronchoscopy has been an integral part of the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic pulmonary diseases in children. Rapid technical advances have continuously influenced the performance of the procedure. Over the years, the application of pediatric bronchoscopy has considerably expanded to a broad range of indications. In this comprehensive and up-to-date guideline, the Special Interest Group of the Society for Pediatric Pneumology reviewed the most recent literature on pediatric bronchoscopy and reached a consensus on a safe technical performance of the procedure.

Life-Threatening Accidental Intravenous Epinephrine Overdose in a 12-Year-Old Boy.

Reports on accidental intravenous epinephrine overdose in children are extremely rare, although medication errors in the management of pediatric anaphylaxis seem to be frequent. We report a case of a 12-year-old boy presenting with a long-lasting skin rash and dyspnea who was incorrectly diagnosed with early anaphylactic shock and was treated with 10-fold the recommended dose administered by the wrong route (intravenous instead of intramuscular). He reacted with acute loss of consciousness and acute cardiorespiratory failure due to arterial hypotension, ischemic heart failure, and severe pulmonary edema. He responded rapidly to mechanical ventilation, treatment with diuretics, and low-dose inotropes and recovered without sequelae. Despite this ultimately favorable outcome, we report this case to remind the scientific community that inadvertent and accidental epinephrine overdosing is probably an underrecognized event, which can result in potentially lethal complications. Heightening the awareness of the personnel, implementing safety precautions for the dosage and the route of administration, stocking of prefilled intramuscular dose syringes for emergency use in anaphylaxis and, ideally, introducing a standardized drug order form should reduce potential risks and facilitate proper and optimal treatment for all acutely ill children.

Pulmonary Function Test Abnormalities in Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary involvement in adult patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) seems more common than previously appreciated. Its prevalence and development over time in pediatric IBD patients are largely unknown. OBJECTIVES: The aim was to study lung function including fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and transfer capacity for carbon monoxide (TLCO) in pediatric IBD patients and to describe the longitudinal development in a subset of patients with lung function abnormalities. METHODS: Sixty-six measurements were made in 48 IBD patients (30 patients with Crohn's disease and 18 with ulcerative colitis) and 108 matched controls. Patients with abnormal TLCO or elevated residual volume/total lung capacity (RV/TLC) ratios were invited for a follow-up. Statistical comparisons were made by nonparametric tests and ANOVA. RESULTS: TLCO was decreased in IBD patients [median: 88% predicted (interquartile range, IQR, 22) vs. 99% predicted (IQR 19) in controls]. RV/TLC ratios were mildly elevated in patients with ulcerative colitis [32% (IQR 9) vs. 27% (IQR 8) in controls], and maximum expiratory flows at 50 and 25% of vital capacity were mildly reduced in patients with Crohn's disease. FeNO and disease activity did not correlate with lung function abnormalities. Abnormalities did not consistently persist over a median follow-up period of 34 months. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports evidence that variable and fluctuating pulmonary involvement also occurs in pediatric IBD patients. Its clinical significance is unclear.

Acute respiratory failure in children.

Acute respiratory failure is the most common medical emergency in children. One aim of this review is to discuss the physiologic peculiarities that explain the increased vulnerability of infants and children to any pathology affecting the respiratory tract. The other aim is to highlight the importance of history taking and correct physical examination for early recognition of an impending catastrophic progression of respiratory failure. Under most circumstances, correct physical examination alone allows one to pinpoint the cause to a particular part of the respiratory system and to make the appropriate decisions for a proactive and life-saving management of the critically ill child.

Endoscopic airway findings in children with or without prior endotracheal intubation.

BACKGROUND: Airway alterations found after endotracheal intubation are usually associated with mechanical trauma from the tube. However, no studies are available concerning alterations in airways that have never been intubated before. It was the aim of the study to compare endoscopic findings in the larynx and trachea of children who had undergone prior endotracheal intubation with findings in children who had not been intubated before. METHODS: In 1021 children aged from 0 to 6 years, rigid endoscopies were performed before planned elective endotracheal intubation. The anonymized endoscopy videos were reviewed and graded by five international airway experts. Data was compared between the two groups using the chi-square test (P ≤ 0.05). RESULTS: Endoscopic records of 971 children (473 with prior intubation; 498 without prior airway intubation) were included in the final calculations. Most patients (93.7%) with prior intubation had been intubated with a cuffed tube. The number of intubations ranged from 1 to 27. The median interval between intubation and endoscopy was 0.53 years (0.003-5.57 years). Abnormal findings were observed in 31.7% and 26.8% of patients with and without prior intubation, respectively (P = 0.063). Glottic granulomas were significantly more common after intubation (3.6% vs 1.4%; P = 0.028). The incidence of other abnormal findings was similar in both groups. CONCLUSION: Endoscopic airway alterations can be observed in about one-quarter of children presenting for routine surgery without prior intubation. Except for glottic granulomas, the abnormalities are found with similar frequency in patients with and without prior intubation. No relevant airway damage from short-term endotracheal intubation was found.

[Obstructive air way disease in infants and children]. / Obstruktive Atemwegserkrankungen im Kindesalter.

Obstruktive airway disease in children are a heterogeneous entity of different age specific phenotypes. In infants and preschoolers, episodically occurring viral induced wheezing episodes are frequent and often transient. Approximately 10 % of children, however, develop a more chronic form of obstructive airway symptoms, often triggered by multiple factors such as viruses, pollutants and/or aeroallergens. The latter form, commonly referred as bronchial asthma, requires a different therapeutic approach using combined therapy with a preventive anti-inflammatory therapy as well as additional bronchodilator therapy. Whereas purely viral induced forms of wheezing disorders require only bronchodilator therapy on demand. The current review provides strategies to clinically identify these various phenotypes and describes phenotype specific treatment recommendations based on national and international guidelines.

A Comparison of Proximal and Tracheal Airway Pressures During Pressure Controlled Ventilation.

BACKGROUND: Airway pressure is usually measured by sensors placed in the ventilator or on the ventilator side of the endotracheal tube (ETT), at the Y-piece. These remote measurements serve as a surrogate for the tracheal or alveolar pressure. Tracheal pressure can only be predicted correctly by using a model that incorporates the pressure at the remote location, the flow through the ETT, and the resistance of the ETT if the latter is a predictable function of Y-piece flow. However, this is not consistently appropriate, and accuracy of prediction is hampered. METHODS: This in vitro study systematically examined the ventilator pressure in dependence of compliance of the respiratory system (CRS), inspiratory time, and expiratory time during pressure-controlled ventilation by using a small intratracheal pressure sensor and a mechanical lung simulator. Pressures were measured simultaneously at the ventilator outlet, at the Y-piece, and in the trachea during pressure-controlled ventilation with a peak inspiratory pressure of 20 cm H2O and a PEEP of 5 cm H2O while changing CRS (10, 30, 60, 90, and 100 mL/cm H2O) and varying inspiratory time and expiratory time. RESULTS: Tracheal pressures were always lower (maximum 8 cm H2O during inspiration) or higher (maximum 4 cm H2O during expiration) than the pressures measured proximal to the ETT if zero-flow conditions were not achieved at the end of the breathing cycles. CONCLUSIONS: Dependent on CRS and the breathing cycle, tracheal pressures deviated from those measured proximal to the ETT under non-zero-flow conditions. Intratracheal pressure and pressure curve dynamics can differ greatly from the ventilator pressure, depending on the ventilator setting and the CRS. The small pressure sensor may be used as a measurement method of tracheal pressure via integration onto an ETT.

Progressive static pulmonary hyperinflation in survivors of severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia by mid-adulthood.

BACKGROUND: Severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) might be associated with an accelerated age-related decline of lung function. METHODS: 14 individuals were studied longitudinally at 15±4, 18±3 and 38±3.2 years. Information on personal history was completed, and lung function testing and skin prick testing were performed. Longitudinal data were compared intra-individually and with matched controls from the NHANES III dataset. RESULTS: The ratio of residual volume/total lung capacity (RV/TLC) increased markedly from 25.9±7.0% to 39.3±6.8%. A significant time-effect was found compared to controls for the forced vital capacity (FVC) which decreased more rapidly than expected. Flow values were at the lower limit of normal range but remained relatively stable over time. Some individuals had completely normal lung function results. CONCLUSION: Increasing static pulmonary hyperinflation with age is indicative of bronchiolar dysfunction or early emphysematous changes in survivors of severe BPD. Susceptibility for long-term sequelae shows significant variability.

Acute bronchiolitis in Switzerland - Current management and comparison over the last two decades.

BACKGROUND: Although international guidelines and Cochrane reviews emphasize that therapies do not alter the natural course of acute viral bronchiolitis (AVB), they are still prescribed frequently. This survey evaluated self-reported management of AVB by Swiss pediatricians in 2019 and compared it with previous surveys. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional online survey of all board-certified pediatricians in Switzerland in November 2019 and compared the reported use of therapies with that reported in the 2001 and 2006 surveys. We used multivariable ordered logistic regression to assess factors associated with reported prescription of bronchodilators, corticosteroids, antibiotics, and physiotherapy. RESULTS: Among 1618 contacted board-certified pediatricians, 884 returned the questionnaires (55% response rate). After exclusions were applied, 679 were included in the final analysis. Pediatricians working in primary care reported using therapeutics more frequently than those working in a hospital setting, either always or sometimes: bronchodilators 53% versus 38%, corticosteroids 37% versus 23%, and antibiotics 39% versus 22%. The opposite occurred with physiotherapy: 53% reported prescribing it in hospital and 44% in primary care. There was an overall decrease in the prescription of therapeutics and interventions for AVB from 2001 to 2019. The proportion who reported "always" prescribing corticosteroids decreased from 71% to 2% in primary care, and of those "always" prescribing bronchodilators from 55% to 1% in hospitals. CONCLUSION: Although we observed a significant decrease since 2001, more effort is required to reduce the use of unnecessary therapies in children with AVB.

Testing of pandemic ventilators under early and agile development.

Aiming to address clinical requirements subsequent to SARS-CoV-2-related pulmonary disease, multiple research groups and industry groups carried out intensive studies to develop pandemic ventilators (PDVs). In vitro testing to critically evaluate the specific performance of the developed apparatuses is an essential requirement. This study presents a test protocol which promotes a test-oriented, iterative, and agile assessment and consecutive development of such PDVs. It allows for fast identification of specific characteristics of each PDV in the individual test features. The test protocol includes an evaluation of the accuracy of control systems and instruments at changing parameters, the oxygen dynamics, and the response to trigger signals. The test environment is a mechanical lung, which allows reproducing various lung mechanics and to simulate active breathing cycles. A total of three PDVs that are under development were iteratively tested, with a Hamilton T1 as a reference. Continuous testing of the PDVs under development enables quick identification of critical application aspects that deserve further improved. Based on the present test protocol, the ventilators demonstrate a promising performance justifying continued development.

Inflammatory bowel disease and the lung in paediatric patients.

The prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has increased over the past 20 years. Pulmonary involvement in paediatric IBD is rare but may be missed since the spectrum of symptoms is broad and mimics other diseases. The most important differential diagnoses of pulmonary manifestations of IBD are infections and therapy-related side-effects. There is no gold standard to diagnose respiratory manifestations in children with IBD. Diagnostic tests should be chosen according to history and clinical presentation. Treatment of respiratory manifestations of IBD includes inhaled or oral corticosteroids and initiation or step-up of immunomodulatory IBD therapies.

Forced expiratory flows and volumes in intubated and paralyzed infants and children: normative data up to 5 years of age.

Reference equations that express indexes obtained from forced expiratory maneuvers in relation to height and/or other independent variables are lacking for infants and children with artificial airways. The present study was performed to establish normative data of forced expiration by forced deflation in healthy intubated and paralyzed infants and children and to develop prediction equations in relation to height and to ulna length to enable pulmonary assessments in children whose height is difficult to measure. Measurements of forced and passive expiratory maneuvers after inflation to +40 cmH(2)O inspiratory pressure were prospectively obtained in 100 healthy anesthetized children from 0 to 5 yr of age. Linear regressions of log-transformed forced vital capacity (FVC) and maximum expiratory flow at 25% and 10% FVC (MEF(25) and MEF(10), respectively) obtained by forced deflation (-40 cmH(2)O airway opening pressure) and of analogous indexes obtained by passive deflation were used to develop prediction equations from height or ulna length. FVC was significantly dependent on age and height or ulna length. Prediction equations for FVC using height or ulna length were as follows: ln(FVC in ml) = -5.6 + 2.8 x ln(height in cm) and ln(FVC in ml) = 0.46 + 2.5 x ln(ulna length in cm). Younger subjects had a significantly steeper slope for FVC vs. height than the older age group. Normal reference data for forced expiratory maneuvers in intubated infants and children up to 5 yr of age will enable improved assessment of pulmonary dysfunction in acutely or chronically ventilator-dependent children. Using ulna length instead of height should facilitate respiratory assessment in ventilated children with spinal or joint deformities.

Update of the European paediatric respiratory medicine syllabus.

The 10-year-old European syllabus for paediatric respiratory medicine (PRM; also known as paediatric pulmonology) was updated by a consensus-based method using an expert task force for redrafting, and a subsequent Delphi process to achieve consensus. There was a high degree of consensus for the final syllabus, which has been streamlined and made more relevant to current practice. All modules are now mandatory apart from the undertaking of research projects, which is optional. Although there are still a number of countries in Europe which do not recognise PRM as a separate subspecialty, there are paediatric respiratory physicians practising in every country in Europe, and a current and harmonised European syllabus in the subspecialty remains important for defining the training and areas of practice of PRM practitioners.

CPAP to diagnose laryngeal clefts by flexible endoscopy in infants.

BACKGROUND: Laryngeal clefts (LC) are uncommon but important causes of stridor in infants. Direct laryngoscopy is the recommended method for the detection of LC because LC may be missed by flexible endoscopy. As laryngomalacia by far outnumbers any other cause of stridor in this age group flexible bronchoscopy is usually the preferred method for the evaluation of significant infantile stridor. The aim is to illustrate how the application of CPAP assists the detection of LC during flexible endoscopy. METHOD: Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is applied via endoscopy mask during flexible endoscopy, titrated to open the upper esophageal sphincter, and to spread the inter-arytenoid folds. RESULTS: The application of CPAP of 10-15 cmH2 O resulted in visual unmasking of otherwise obscured LC in four young children assessed for congenital stridor. CONCLUSION: CPAP helps visualize LC by flexible endoscopy obviating transition to direct laryngoscopy and manual exploration.

Prone equals prone? Impact of positioning techniques on respiratory function in anesthetized and paralyzed healthy children.

OBJECTIVES: Although the prone position is effectively used to improve oxygenation, its impact on functional residual capacity is controversial. Different techniques of body positioning might be an important confounding factor. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of two different prone positioning techniques on functional residual capacity and ventilation distribution in anesthetized, preschool-aged children. DESIGN: Functional residual capacity and lung clearance index, a measure of ventilation homogeneity, were calculated using a sulfur-hexafluoride multibreath washout technique. After intubation, measurements were taken in the supine position and, in random order, in the flat prone position and the augmented prone position (gel pads supporting the pelvis and the upper thorax). SETTING: Pediatric anesthesia unit of university hospital. PATIENTS AND PARTICIPANTS: Thirty preschool children without cardiopulmonary disease undergoing elective surgery. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Mean (range) age was 48.5 (24-80) months, weight 17.2 (10.5-26.9) kg, functional residual capacity (mean +/- SD) 22.9+/- 6.2 ml.kg (-1) in the supine position and 23.3 +/- 5.6 ml.kg (-1) in the flat prone position, while lung clearance indices were 8.1 +/- 2.3 vs. 7.9 +/- 2.3, respectively. In contrast, functional residual capacity increased to 27.6 +/- 6.5 ml.kg (-1) (p< 0.001) in the augmented prone position while at the same time the lung clearance index decreased to 6.7 +/- 0.9 (p< 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Functional residual capacity and ventilation distribution were similar in the supine and flat prone positions, while these parameters improved significantly in the augmented prone position, suggesting that the technique of prone positioning has major implications for pulmonary function.